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COPYRrOHT DEPOSIT. 



ANNOUNCEMENT 

Cornell Study Bulletins for 
Teachers 

Edited by CHARLES DeGARMO 

Professor of the Science and Art of Education 
Cornell University 



A. Bulletins now Ready 

No. 1. Laboratory Exercises in Art Appreciation. Prof. 
De Garmo. 

The chief purposes of this bulletin are as follows : First, to 
enable teachers to utilize profitably the art treasures of con- 
temporary periodical literature, now largely unused, by found- 
ing a series of laboratory exercises upon them ; and second, to 
present a method whereby a pupil may learn to see for him- 
self, and not take all his art impressions at second hand. 
This is effected by attending to one art element at a time in a 
long series of laboratory comparisons in which there are broad 
contrasts. Incidentally, also, the teacher is guided in his 
study of art by the selection of a few standard works, and by 
a brief statement of general principles, designed to serve as a 
compass to guide him through the literature of the subject. 
A plan is given, also, for the conduct of an art club for study. 

No. 2. Guide to High-School Observation, Assistant Prof. 
Whipple. 

This guide to high-school visitation, inspired by Bagley's 
similar outline for observation in the elementary school, given 
in his "Classroom Management", contains far more than mere 
suggestions for cursory visits, where the object is to get a 
bird's eye view of the class or school as a whole. It is pre- 
pared primarily for university students of education, who are 
expected to observe a school or a class in the light of all their 
professional knowledge. There are, consequently, hundreds 
of questions (in 209 paragraphs) to guide the observations, 
which are classified as follows: 

1. School program, curriculum', a tendance and general ' 
organizations. 

2. Psychological principles in teaching. 

3. Discipline and contro , Moral training. 

4. Hygienic conditions. 

5. Classes in foreign languages; general directions and 
questions for Latin, Greek, German and French. 



G. Specific directions for Classes in Latin. 

7. Greek. 

8. German and French. 

9. English: elocution, rhetoric, English composition, 
English literature. 

10. History and Civics. 

11. Mathematics. 

12. Physics and Chemistry. 

13. Biology: botany, zoology, and human physiology. 

14. Physical and commercial geography. 

In this bulletin many professors of Cornell University have 
contributed to the questions in their respective departments. 
Besides its primary purpose, this bulletin will serve as an ex- 
cellent guide for the supervising principal in the high school 
by suggesting the vital po nts to look for, and will enable the 
individual teacher to check up and pass judgment upon his 
own work. 

No. 3. General and Educational Psychology. 



B. Bulletins contemplated or in preparation 

1. Guides and study in professional subjects, such as the 
history, principles and psychology of education; school hy- 
giene, etc. 

2. Bulletins on the content and teaching of the various 
high school studies. 



C. General Character of the Bulletins 

As the name indicates, this is a series of bulletins to aid 
teachers in their study of education, and in their practice in 
teaching the various high school studies. For the most part, 
the bulletins will be prepared by professors of Cornell Uni- 
versity, and will relate chiefly, though in some cases not ex- 
clusively, to the study and work of high school teachers. 

Each bulletin will treat some one aspect of the subject under 
consideration, will constitute a whole in itself, and will con- 
sequently be in the form of a monograph. Thus, for example, 
a bulletin in English may confine itself to the teaching of a* 
single work of Shakspere, say Macbeth, or it may treat of a 
given aspect of composition, or of oral reading in high-school 
English. Another in science may discuss the best practical 
laboratory equipment, say in physics or chemistry; or the 
proper correlation of experiment, demonstration, lecture and 
recitation ; or the conduct of experiments, the inductive ap- 
proach, the function and limits of verification, etc. A bul- 
letin in economics may furnish a guide to charitable and other 
mstitutions; one in civics and history may discuss and illus- 
trate types of historical treatment, or show how to study the 
civics of cities, etc. Whatever the topic treated, it will as 
stated, be in complete monographic form, and will furnish a 
concrete guide to study and practice. 



CORNELL STUDY BULLETINS 

FOR 
TEACHERS 

Editor: CHARLES DeGARMO, 

Professor of the Science and Art of Education 

No. 4 

QUESTIONS IN 

o C H O O JL o Y Cj I E N K 



BY 
GUY MONTROSE WHIPPLE, Ph.D., 

Assistant Professor of the Science and Art of Education 




SYRACUSE, N. Y. 
C W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 
1909 

Copyright. 1909, gv C. W, Babdeen, Syracuse, N. Y. 



,0^ 



Xi.A2r>a9l2 



CONTJENTS 

Explanatory List of Main References _ _ _ 5 

American Periodicals - - - - - 7 

Standard German Works on School Hygiene - - 7 

Important Foreign Periodicals _ _ _ _ g 

Introductory : Purpose and Use of the Bulletin - - 9 
Section 

A. The Schoolhouse Site and Grounds - - - 11 

B. General Construction ----- 15 

C. Form and Size of the Schoolroom - - - 21 

D. Illumination ----- 23 

(a) Requirements and Tests - - - 23 

(b) Daylight Illumination - - - 24 

(c) Shades - - - - - 25 

(d) Color of Walls - - - - 25 

(e) Artificial Illumination - - - 26 

E. School Desks - - - - - 28 

F. Heating and Ventilating - - - - 32 

(a) Air and Respiration - - - - ' 33 

(b) Fresh Air Requirements - - - 34 

(c) Humidity - - - - - 36 

(d) Temperature - - - - - 36 

(e) Methods of Ventilating _ _ _ 37 

(f) Methods of Heating - - - - 38 

G. Sanitation ----- 40 

(a) Toilet Rooms - - - - - 41 

(b) Drinking Water - - - - 42 

(c) School Lavatories and Baths - - - 42 

(d) Cleaning, Disinfection, and Janitor Service - 43 
H. Vision ----- 45 

(a) Vision in General - - - - 46 

(b) Myopia - - - - - 47 

(c) Hyperopia ----- 48 

(d) Astigmatisrn - - - - - 48 

(e) Muscular deficiencies - - - - 49 



(f) Asthenopia ----- 49 

(g) Methods of Testing Visual Acuity - - 49 
(h) Color-blindness - - - - - 51 
(i) Inflammatory Conditions - - - 51 

I Hygiene of Reading ----- 53 

J. Hygiene of Writing ----- 56 

K. Hearing ----- 59 

L. Hygiene of the Mouth, Throat, and Nose - - 62 

(a) Nose and Throat - - - - 63 

(b) Adenoids ----- 64 

(c) The Voice ----- 65 

(d) The Teeth ----- 66 
M. School Diseases and Accidents - - - - 68 

(a) Introductory ----- 68 

(b) Infectious Diseases - - - - 69 

(c) Non-infectious Diseases - - - - 72 

(d) Accidents ----- 72 
N. Medical Inspection ----- 75 
O. Growth. Sex Hygiene. Fatigue and Overpressure. Rest- 
pauses, etc. ----- 80 

(a) Growth ----- 82 

(b) Sex Hygiene - ' - - - - 82 

(c) Fatigue and Overpressure - - - 82 

(d) Rest-pauses and Program Arrangements - - 84 

(e) Sleep ----- 86 

(f) Exercise ----- 87 

(g) Diet and Clothing . . _ - gg 



Explanatory List of Main References 

Barry — W. F. Barry, The Hygiene of the Schoolroom, New York, 
Silver Burdett & Co., 1903. Pp. 191. Price, $1.50. 

Briggs — ^W. R. Briggs, Modern American School Buildings, New York, 
John Wiley & Sons, 1899. Pp. 411 (Contains 89 full-page cuts) . Price. 
$4.00. 

Burnham — W. H. Burnham, Outlines of school hygiene, in Pedagogical 
Seminary, ii., 1892, 9-71. (With bibliography of some 75 titles.) 

Burrage — S. Burrage and H. T. Bailey, School Sanitation and Decora- 
tion: a practical study of health and beauty in their relations to the 
public schools, Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1899. Pp. 180. Price, $1.50. 

Clark — ^T. M. Clark, Rural School Architecture, Washington, Circular of 
Information, No. 4, 1880. (Bureau of Education) . Pp.106. 

Cohn — ^H. Cohn, The Hygiene of the Eye in Schools (English transla- 
tion), London, Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1886. Pp. 236. Price, 10s., 6d. 

Elkington— J. S. C. Elkington, Health in the School: or Hygiene for 
Teachers, London, Blackie & Son., 1907. Pp. 190. Price, 2s. 

Ellis— A. C. Ellis and H. Kuehne, School Buildings, Austin, Texas. 
Bulletin of the University of Texas, No. 66 (General series. No. 13, 
June 15. 1905) Pp. 119. 

Fowler — School Buildings and Grounds in Nebraska, by the Dept. of 
Public Instruction (W. K. Fowler, State Supt.), Lincoln, Neb., 1902. 
Pp. 275. 

Gerhard— W. P. Gerhard, Sanitation of Public Buildings, New York, 
John Wiley & wSons, 1907. Pp. 237. Price, $1.50. (School sanita- 
tion forms ch. iv.) 

Hope— E. W. Hope and E. A. Browne, A Manual of School Hygiene: 
written for the Guidance of Teachers in Day-Schools, Cambridge, 
Eng., University Press, 1904. Pp. 204. Price, $1.00. 

5 



6 

Kotelmanii — L. Kotelmann, School Hygiene (English translation). 
Syracuse, N. Y., C. W. Bardeen, 1899. Pp. 352. Price, $1.50. 

Lincoln — D. F. Lincoln, School and Industrial Hygiene, Philadelphia, 
P. Blakiston & Son, 1896. Pp. 144. Price, $0.40. 

Marble — ^A. P. Marble, Sanitary conditions for Schoolhouses, Circular 
of Information, No. 3, 1891, Bureau of Education, Washington. 
Pp. 122. (Contains numerous plans.) . 

Moore — J. A. Moore, The School House: its Heating and Ventilation, 
Boston, 1905. Pp. 201. Price, $2.00. 

Newsholme — A. Newsholme, School Hygiene: or the Laws of Health in 
Relation to School Life, Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1894. Pp. 140. 
Price, $0.75. 

Porter — C. Porter, School Hygiene and the Laws of Health, London and 
New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1906. Pp. 306. Price, $1.25. 

Risley — S. D. Risley, School Hygiene, being pp. 353-418, in vol. ii. of 
Norris and Oliver, System of Diseases of the Eye, Philadelphia, J. P. 
Lippincott Co.. 1897. Price per vol., $5.00. 

Rowe — S. H. Rowe, The Lighting of Schoolrooms: a Manual for School 
Boards, Architects, Superintendents and Teachers. New York, 
Longmans, Green & Co., 1904. Pp. 85. Price, $1.00. 

Shaw— E. R. Shaw, School Hygiene, New York, The Macmillan Co., 1902. 
Pp. 252. Price, $1.00. 

Snell— S. Snell, Eyesight and School Life, Bristol, Eng., J. Wright & Co., 
1895. Pp. 70. Price, 2s. 6d. 

vSturgis— The Annual Report of the Schoolhouse Dept. (R. C. Sturgis, 
Chairman), Boston, 1903 on. 

Wheelwright — E. M. Wheelwright, School Architecture: a General 
Treatise for the use of Architects and Others, Boston, Rogers & 
Manson, 1901. Pp. 307. Price, $5.00. 

Young— School Hygiene and Schoolhouses, being pp. 83-385 in Seventh 
Annual Rept. State Board of Health of the State of Maine (A. G. 
Young, Secretary), Augusta, Me., 1892. 



American Periodicals 

The Pedagogical Seminary — edited by G. Stanley Hall, assisted by 
W. H. Bumham, quarterly. Florence Chandler, Worcester, Mass., since 
1891. Price $5.00 per year. (Contains many important articles on 
school hygiene.) 

The Psychological Clinic — a journal of orthogenics, for the study and 
treatment of retardation and deviation — edited by L. Witmer, nine 
monthly issues. The Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia, since 1907. 
Price, $1.50 per year. 

School Hygiene — edited by G. S. Badger, ten monthly issues. Pub- 
lished by the American School Hygiene Association, thru D. C. Heath & 
Co., Boston, 1908-9. Price, $0.50 per year. (Now consolidated with 
the following:) 

Hygiene and Physical Education — edited by Wm. W. Hastings. 
Monthly. F. A. Bassette Co., Springfield, Mass. First number, March, 
1909. Price, $2.00 per year. (Proposes to cover school hygiene, phys- 
cal education, the playground, and other phases of the movement for 
the promotion of national health.) 

Standard German works on school hygiene 

A. Baginsky — Handbuch der Schulhygiene, 3d ed., Stuttgart, F. Enke, 
2 vols., 1898-1900. Pp. 736 and 419. 

L. Burgerstein and A. Netolitzky — Handbuch der Schulhygiene, 2d 
ed., Jena, G. Fischer, 1902. Pp. 964. 

H. Eulenberg and T. Bach — Schulgesundheitslehre : das Schulhaus 
und das Unterrichtswesen vom hygienischen Standpunkte, 2ded., Berlin. 
J. Heines, 1900. Pp. 1388. 

O. Janke — Grundriss der Schulhygiene, 2d ed., Hamburg, J. Voss, 
1901, Pp. 295. 

W. A. Lay — Unser Schulunterricht im Lichte der Hygiene, Wies- 
baden, O. Nemnich, 1904. Pp. 32. 



8 

P. Schmid-Monnai'd and R. Schmidt — Schulgesundheitspflege, Leip- 
zig. R. Voigtlander, 1902. Pp. 184. 

Important foreign periodicals 

Internaiional Archiv fur Schulhygiciie (International Magazine of 
School Hygiene), Leipzig, W. Engelmann, since 1905. (Prints articles 
in English, German, French and other languages.) 

Die Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege , Hamburg and Leipzig, L. 
Voss, since 1888. 

Zeitschrift fur Kinderforschung, (Die Kinderfehler) , edited by J. Koch, 
E. Martinak, J. Triiper, and C. Ufer, Langensalza, H. Beyer & Son, since 
1896. 

Zeitschrift fi'ir Experimentelle Pddagogik, edited by E. Meumann, 
Leipzig, O. Nemnich, since 1905. 

Zeitschrift fur pddagogische Psychologic, edited by F. Kemsies and L. 
HirschlafiE, Berlin, since 1899, 



QUESTIONS IN SCHOOL HYGIENE 

Introductory 

Purpose and use of the Bulletin. This Bulletin, like its predecessor — 
Questions in General and Educational Psychology — is devised to stimulate 
the interest of students and teachers, to afford a guide for reading and 
discussion, and a means for promoting and testing the intelligent assimi- 
lation of the subject-matter that it represents. 

In college, normal, or training-school classes in the hygiene of educa- 
tion, this Bulletin may be used to supplement, or still better to supplant, 
the use of classroom texts. The questions are grouped systematically 
under classificatory headings. Under each of these headings will be 
found page or chapter references to a selected list of authorities. If 
students can have access to these books in the library of the institution,, 
the teacher may, at each meeting of the class, assign a given number of 
advance questions ror discussion by a given student or group of students- 
at a subsequent meeting. Or, if preferred, he may assign review ques- 
tions in the form of oral or written quiz-exercises to be undertaken by all 
members of the class after his exposition of the topics by lectures. 
The first method develops the problem-solving spirit, promotes class 
discussion, trains students in the art of 'getting-up' topics by themselves, 
and, if rightly handled, stimulates friendly rivalry. The second method 
has the merit of permitting faster progress, and perhaps of giving a 
better perspective and more systematic organization of information. It 
is probably to be preferred on this account when the subject-matter is. 
technical or difficult. 

In teachers' associations, mothers clubs, child-study clubs and like 
organizations, this Bulletin may be employed to advantage in a similar 
manner. The club should, collectively or individually, arrange for access 
to the books to which frequent reference is made, and, if possible, sub- 
scribe to the more important magazines. In the meetings, individual 

9 



10 

members should then present papers upon assigned topics^ and other 
members should be responsible for a discussion of these papers in the 
light of the questions herein contained. In most communities the club 
could secure the services of physicians, health officers, school superin- 
tendents, college teachers, or other competent persons for the presenta- 
tion of a number of lectures upon the various problems of school 
hygiene. 

The compiler of this Bulletin would be glad to cooperate with any 
readers who wish further suggestions concerning the study of the health 
of the child at school. 



A. The Schoolhouse Site and Grounds 



References 



Barry — ^i. 
Briggs— 227-8. 
Burnham— 19-21. 
Burrage — ^i. 
Clark— 7-26, 86-92. 
Cohn— 132, 141-2. 
Ellis— 8-9. 
Fowler— 44, 9^134. 
Gerhard— 119-123. 
Hope — i., ii. 
Kotelmann — 35-8. 



Lincoln — xi. 
Marble— 112-114. 
Moore — 6-7. 
Newshomle — ^i. 
Porter — xv. 
Risley— 382-3. 
Rowe — Section i. 
Shaw — ^iii. 

Sturgis— 1908, 79-80. 
Wheelwright — 1-4. 
Young— 240-3. 



Suggestions for further reading 

L. H. Bailey — Hints on rural school grounds. Bull. No. 160, Cornell 
Univ. Agri. Expt. Station, Jan., 1899. 

W. L. Hall — Tree planting on rural school grounds. Farmer's Bull. 
No. 134, U. S. Dept. Agri., 1901. 

1. Name the factors that should be considered in the selection of the 
schoolhouse site. Which factors are most important? Which least 
important ? 

2. Should the site be upon a principal street ? In a thickly settled 
section? 

3. In determining the radius of territory that is to be served by the 
schoolhouse, how far is it reasonable td expect a pupil to walk to school ? 

4. What officers or authorities commonly select school sites? Can 
you suggest methods for selecting sites that would bring about better 
results ? Ought the school architect to have any part in the decision ? 

11 



12 

5. What sources of noise are liable to interfere with school work if 
too near the school-building ? 

6. What possible sources of danger may effect the selection of a site 
in the city ? In the country ? 

7. What kinds of industrial or other activity might render a site un- 
desirable for a schoolhouse by vitiating or contaminating the air ? 

8. Should esthetic factors have weight in the selection of the site ? 

9. What would be objectionable about these features near a school- 
building, and why: hospitals, manure piles, ponds, cemeteries, mills, 
gas-houses, bams, saloons, police-stations, marshes, dilapidated buildings? 

10. Does the fact that education is compulsory make it at all obliga- 
tory upon school authorities to provide attractive or beautiful as well as 
safe and comfortable buildings ? 

11. Discuss the schoolhouse site from the standpoint of soil and 
drainage. 

12. What kinds of soil retain most moisture ? State the evil efEects 
that may be produced by damp soils. 

13. Is clay soil good or poor for the site of a schoolhouse ? 

14. Why is 'made' land undesirable for a site ? 

15. What is meant by 'soil air' or 'ground air' ? How does it differ 
from ordinary air ? How does this air enter the schoolhouse and why is 
it to be avoided ? (Detailed discussion by Dr. G. F. Witter, may be found 
in 4th Ann. Rept. State Brd. Health, Wisconsin, for 1879.) 

16. What is meant by 'ground water' ? What should be the maximal 
height of ground water with reference to the floor of the schoolhouse 
basement ? 

17. If a springy soil is the only one available, how may it be made 
safe for a schoolhouse site ? 

IS. How can the nature of the underlying soil be determined before 
the site is purchased and the excavation begun ? 



13 

19. What can you say with reference to the elevation of the site? 
What is the maximal desirable grade or slope of the school grounds ? 

20. If the building is to be placed upon a slope, how ought the drain- 
age to be arranged ? 

21. What objection is there to the common practise of perching the 
schoolhouse on the top of the highest hill in the town ? 

22. In what way should the size of the school grounds be determined ? 
How many square feet of ground should be allowed per pupil ? 

23. What is the usual size of the school-lot in most towns and vil- 
lages ? What is the minimal size permissible in such localities ? 

24. What shape is preferable for the school-lot ? 

25. State three rules for controlling the proper relation of distance 
and height of the adjacent trees and buildings. 

26. According to Cohn, too small a site may be one factor in producing 
or augmenting myopia. In what way? 

27. To what extent and in what way ought the school grounds to be 
ornamented ? 

28. Which is the more valuable, — space for ornamental planting or 
space for playgrounds? Space for permanent ornamental planting or 
space for school gardens ? 

29. Ought shade-trees to be planted in the schoolgrounds ? In what 
part? 

30. What general rules may be laid down to govern the location of 
the building on the site? Should it be, for example, in the center, near 
the street, or toward the back of the lot ? How much of the site should 
be built upon? etc. 

31. Do you agree with Young that "there should be no hesitation in 
placing the building out of line with the street, if otherwise the sun 
cannot be kept out of the rooms where it is not wanted, and cannot be 
secured where it is wanted" ? 

32. Discuss the principles that condition the orientation of the build- 



14 

ing. State the advantages and the disadvantages of placing the class- 
rooms on the north, the east, the south, and the west exposure. 

33. Which is the best exposure and why ? 

34. Why is it often urged that the corners of the building should 
face the four cardinal points of the compass ? 

35. Ought classrooms to be placed on the north side of the school- 
house? What kinds of rooms may be placed there with the least 
disadvantage ? 

36. Several commissions of schoolhouse experts have formulated as 
a basal requirement that direct sunlight must fall in every classroom at 
some portion of the day. For what reasons ? Suggest plans by which 
this may be accomplished. 

37. Is it desirable to fence the schoolgrounds ? Why? What kind 
of a fence should be used if one is wanted ? 

38. Where in the school- yard should walks be constructed? How 
wide ? Of what material ? Should walks to outdoor toilets be covered 
or open ? Why ? 

39. Suggest means for protecting children on the playgrounds from 
wind and rain. 

40. Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of various cover- 
ings for the playground, e. g., stone, asphalt, gravel, sand, turf, etc. 

41. Should there be separate playgrounds or separate play-hours for 
the two sexes? For the pupils of different grades? Why? Should 
the boys' playground and the girls' playground be separated by a fence ? 

42. Explain the use of roof and indoor playgrounds in city schools. 

43. Would it be worth while to roof-over a portion of the playground 
so that outdoor exercise could be secured in stormy weather ? 

44. For what games or sports ought provision to be made on the 
playground, e. g., base-ball, basket-ball, hand-ball, horizontal bar, 
swings, etc.? Ought the school authorities to supply any materials 
for these forms of sport or recreation ? 

45. Give some account of the modern playground movement. State 
its purpose and its value. 



B. General Construction 

References 

Barry — ^ii. Lincoln — 83-4. 

Briggs — ^i. to x., xiii. to xvi. Marble — ^App. i. to v- 

Burnham — ^21-2. Moore — ^i. 

Burrage — ^ii. Newsholme — ^ii. 

Clark— 2&-62, 86-106. Porter— xvi. 

Elkington— 39-44. ^ Risley— 382-5. 

Ellis— 3-7, 10-18, 38-9, 76-119. Shaw— ii. 

Fowler — 1 1-48, et passim . Sturgis — entire 

Gerhard— 123-9, 146. Wheelwright— entire 

Hope— ii., App. i. Young— 243-8, 363-385. 

Suggestions for further reading 

H. Baudin — Les constructions scolaires en Suisse, Geneva, 1907. Pp. 
543. (Valuable for illustrations of foreign buildings: contains 32 plates 
and 612 smaller cuts.) 

H. Barnard — Schoolhouse Architecture: or Contributions to the Im- 
provement of Schoolhouses in the United States, 1838. 5th ed., 1854. 
(Historically valuable.) 

W. H. Burnham — The ideal schoolhouse, in the World's Work, June, 
1901, 866-871. 

A. S. Draper — ^Plans and specifications of schoolhouses, in 35th Ann. 
Rept. State Supt. Public Instruc. of New York, 1889. 

Educational buildings: reviews of some 20 German and French 
treatises, in Ped. Sem., i., 1891, 425-437. 

W. B. Ittner — Reports of the Commsnr. of School Bldgs., St. Louis, 
Mo., reprinted from the annual repts, of the Brd. of Educ. 

C. H. Walker — Suggestions on the architecture of schoolhouses, in the 

Atlantic Mo., Ixxiv., 1894, 825. 

15 



16 

The School Board Journal, W. Bruce, editor, Milwaukee, Wis., pub- 
lishes each month a number of plans and cuts of new school houses. 
This magazine is especially valuable. 

46. Give several reasons why only the best materials should, as a 
rule, be used in the construction of a schoolhouse. Should the best 
material always be used, regardless of cost? 

47. Why is it cheaper to build one large than two small buildings ? 

48. What motives and influences commonly lead to poor or to cheap 
construction ? 

49. W^hat are the best materials for schoolhouse construction? 
Should wood ever be used ? 

50. What advantage may be secured by exterior walls of so-called 
'hollow' construction? 

51. Why is it advisable to have a basement under the entire building ? 

52. What rooms and equipment need to be provided for in the base- 
ment? 

53. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of placing 
toilet rooms in the basement? 

54. Ought rooms for class work, e. g., for manual training, to be 
placed in the basement ? 

55. If the basement is to be used at times for a playground, what 
kind of a floor should it have ? 

56. Mention all the precautions that must be taken to protect the 
basement from dampness. 

57. Is it necessary that sunlight should enter the basement? 

\' 58. If the basement is omitted in a small schoolhouse, ought there to 
be an air-space between the ground and the floor ? How much ? Ought 
this space to be open to the circulation of air ? In winter as well as in 
summer ? 

59. What objection may be advanced against the use of solid con- 
crete foundation walls ? How may this objection be met ? 



17 

60. Fires in schoolhouses usually originate in the basement. What 
precautions would reduce this danger to the minimum ? 

61. Why is it desirable to construct the interior partition-walls of 
brick or stone ? 

62. Should the roof be flat or have a low pitch? How should the 
roof be covered, and why? 

63. Why should the joists that support the schoolhouse floors be 
especially heavy ? 

64. What is the best material for schoolhouse floors ? What are the 
particular advantages and disadvantages of oak, Georgia pine, ash 
maple, soft woods? 

65. Why should the floors be laid with 'rift-sawn' boards ? 

66. Why should narrow rather than wide boards be used ? Why 
should they be tongued-and-grooved ? 

67. Why are cheap floors invariably unsatisfactory? 

68. Describe the methods used for 'sound-proofing floors and par- 
titions. 

69. Should schoolhouse floors be painted, varnished, waxed, oiled, 
or left without any special treatment ? 

70. Why is it desirable to floor the attic ? 

71. How wide should corridors be? Should provision be made for 
warming them ? 

72. What is the least number of entrances permissible ? 

73. What rule may be used to determine approximately the width 
and number of entrances and corridors ? 

74. Can corridors be too wide ? 

75. What should be the width of classroom doors ? Ought they to 
be provided with panels of clear glass ? 

76. Should classroom and entrance doors open inward or outward ? 
Should they be locked while school is in session ? ; 



18 

77. Chandler says: "No schoolhouse can be considered first-class 
that has wardrobes in the corridors, however careful their construction, 
and ventilation." Why not? 

78. State the important principles that should be observed in the 
construction of every cloak-room. Describe an ideal cloak-room. 

79. Why should the cloak-room be ventilated ? Why heated ? Why 
lighted from outside ? 

80. How can arrangements be made to ensure drying of the pupils' 
clothing and to prevent contact between the clothing of different pupils ? 

81. What provision should be made for overshoes and umbrellas? 

82. In what way may faulty wardrobes be responsible for the spread 
of infectious diseases ? 

83. Describe the most common faults in the location, construction' 
and equipment of cloak-rooms. Ought they ever to be placed in the 
basement ? 

84. State the rules that should govern the construction of stairs 
in the schoolhouse. Consider their number, their width, their pitch,and 
the material to be used in their construction. 

85. Why is it sometimes urged that stairways should be of the 
'boxed' type ? 

86. Why are 'winders' or circular stairways not permissible ? 

87. Why is it desirable to break up the flight of stairs by one or more 
landings ? Why should there be at least three steps between any two 
landings ? 

88. Why are very narrow stairs advocated by some writers ? 

89. How high should the balustrade be ? 

90. Why is it desirable to employ a metal hand-rail ? 

91. Why is it especially important to use fire-proof construction in 
stairways ? 

92. Under what conditions ought stairs to be supplemented by ex- 
terior fire-escapes ? 



19 

93. It is frequently stated that the interior finish of a schoolhouse 
should be similar to that of a modern hospital. Why ? 

94. Why should all unnecessary mouldings, cornices, and other orna- 
mental finish be reduced to a minimum or eliminated ? 

95. Why should wood be avoided in the construction of the wainscot 
or dado ? 

96. What are the advantages of the use of Keene's cement and other 
hard plasters for the interior of the schoolhouse ? 

97. What is meant by a 'cove-finish,' and why is it specified in the 
best schoolhouse construction ? 

98. Enumerate the precautions in construction that tend to safe- 
guard the lives of the pupils from schoolhouse fires. 

99. What is meant by 'slow-burning' construction ? Describe some 
of its features. 

100. How much, approximately, would the cost of the average school- 
house be increased if it were made completely fire-proof ? 

101. What is the limit in the number of stories that should be built 
under any circumstances without fire-proof construction ? 

102. If expense allows only partial fire-proofing, what portions of the 
schoolhouse should be so constructed ? 

103. Of the several means of protection against fires, such as fire- 
proof or slow-burning construction, patent extinguishers, fire-pails, com- 
petent janitors, fire-drills, fire-hose, etc., which deserve most reliance ? 

104. Ought the planning and construction of a schoolhouse to be 
accorded to local architects or thrown open to general competition ? 

105. What is the basis for the contention of some writers that no 
schoolhouse should exceed one story in height ? 

106. Are there any advantages in the second story over the ground 
floor? 

107. Do you agree with Young that "no schoolroom should be located 
higher than the second floor" ? 



20 

108. In a four-room schoolhouse, ought the corridor to lie between 
the classrooms, or along one side? Why? 

109. Sketch rough plans for the floor-arrangement and side-elevations 
of (a) a one-room country school, (6) a two-room school, (c) a four-room 
school. Indicate approximately the dimensions and locations of en- 
trances, corridors, doors, cloak-rooms, classrooms, windows, stairs and 
other important features. (Consult the Questions of Section D for sug- 
gestions as to illumination.) 

110. In an eight-room schoolhouse, ought there to be provision for 
any of the following supplementary rooms: — ^library, principal's office, 
reception-room, bath-room, general assembly room, lunch room, janitor's 
room, bicycle room, offices fcr each teacher, 'hospital' (for treatment of 
cases of accident or sudden illness) ? 

111. Should rural schools have a special room for shop or laboratory 
work? 

112. Why are buildings of more than eight classrooms often built in 
the 'L', 'H', or 'half-H' type? 



C. Form and Size of the Schoolroom 

References 

Burrage — ^20. • Lincoln — ^ix. 

Ellis— 10-11. Porter— 259-262. 

Gerhard— 130-2. vShaw— i. 

Hope— 14, 72. Young— 248-255. 

113. Explain the statement: "The classroom is the unit of school- 
house construction." 

114. Name the factors that should be considered in determining the 
size and shape of the classroom . 

115. What are the best dimensions for the classroom and why? 
What is the best shape ? 

116. The Chicago Board of Education has reduced the standard size 
of classroom in elementary schools from 33 x 263^ to 32 x 21 3^ feet. 
What reasons presumably led to this change ? 

117. The standard size of rooms in the newer New York City schools 
is 30 X 22 x 14. How many pupils will such a room accommodate ? 

118. What is the objection to exceeding the dimensions above given ? 

119. What factors determine the length of the classroom ? What 
the width? What the height? Why is 30 feet too wide for a class- 
room? Why is 10 feet too low? Why is 16 feet too high? 

120. State, if possible, the dimensions of schoolrooms with which 
you are acquainted and which do not accord with the so-called standard 
dimensions. What is the most common fault with the dimensions of 
classrooms; are they too high, too long, too wide, or wrongly propor- 
tioned ? 

121. Emerson, in 1842, recommended a room 30 x 25 x 10 for 56 
pupils. Show why these dimensions are inadequate. How many pupils 
would such a room accommodate properly ? 



22 

122. How many square feet of floor space and cubic feet of air space 
are allowed per capita by the best authorities ? 

123. What is the per capita allowance of floor and air space in the 
room recommended by Emerson ? 

124. How many pupils can be properly accommodated in a room with 
unilateral lighting ? Explain your answer. 

125. Can rooms for primary pupils be made smaller than those for. 
grammar grade pupils ? Give reasons for your answer. 

126. What should be the direction of the aisles in a schoolroom of 
proper shape ? Why ? 

127. Draw the floor plan of a properly proportioned classroom, and 
show the arrangement and dimensions of desks, aisles, teacher's desk or 
platform and other important furniture, for a 40-, a 48-,'and a56-pupil 
room. 



D. Illumination 

References 

Barry — ^vi. Kotelmann — ^ii, iii. 

Briggs— ix., 201-2, 273-4. Marble— 50-6, 62, 75-9, 120. 

Bumham — ^33-6. Newsholme — ^iv. 

Burrage— 54-9, 86-93. Porter— xix. • 

Clark — 15-20. Rowe — entire 

Cohn— xiii., xiv. Shaw— 8-26, 183-191. 

Elkington— iii. Snell— 17-26. 

Ellis— 18-26,39-51. Sturgis— 1907, App. vii., 1908, App. viii. 

Gerhard— 133-5, 143-5. Young— 260-9. 

Hope— 20-22, 142-8. Wheelwright— passim. 

Suggestions for further reading 

W. D. Scott — The sacrifice of the eyes of school children, in Pop. 
Sci. Mo., Ixxi., Oct., 1907, 303-312. 

M. Standish — ^Artificial illumination of schoolrooms, in School Hyg., 
i., Jan., 1909, 74-8. 

(a) • Requirements and tests 

128. What is meant by a candle-meter? By a foot-candle? How 
many foot-candles in one candle-meter ? What is the minimal permissi- 
ble illumination in foot-candles of the worst lighted desk in the school- 
room ? 

129. Why is it difficult to judge by the unaided eye whether a class- 
room is adequately lighted or not ? 

130. What instruments are used for exact determination of illumina- 
tion ? Explain the principles of operation of these instruments. 

131. What appliances or instruments may be employed for less ac- 
curate determination of the amount of illumination ? 

23 



24 

132. Describe a simple test of illumination based on visual acuity. 

(b) Daylight illumination 

133. Give figures to show the variation in outdoor illumination in 
different seasons, times of day, bright and cloudy skies, etc. (See 
Scott.) 

134. Should the arrangement for the illumination of a classroom be 
planned with reference to the brightest or dullest part of the day? 
For winter or summer months ? 

135. What is the ideal direction for illumination ? Why ? 

136. What is the best practically attainable direction of illumination ? 

137. What is the proper direction for unilateral lighting ? Why ? 

138. What are the proper directions for bilateral lighting ? Why ? 

139. If left and rear lighting is used, what should be the position, 
sizes, and arrangement of the rear windows? 

140. Are there any conditions under which right and left lighting may 
be desirable ? If so, how should the windows be arranged ? 

141. When should unilateral, when bilateral, lighting be used ? 

142. What is the maximal width of a room that can be successfully 
ighted unilaterally ? 

143. What is the objection to the use of windows in the front of the 
room ? On the right side ? In the rear ? 

144. What is the standard ratio for the relation of glass to floor area 
that is recommended by the best authorities ? 

145. Examine several classrooms and compute the glass-floor ratio. 
What is the highest, the average, and the lowest ratio found ? 

146. What should be the height of classroom widows ? What bearing 
has this requirement on the determination of the height of the standard, 
classroom ? 

147. What should be the height of the window-sill from the floor ? 



25 

148. Describe the best system of locating windows for unilateral 
lighting ? How far back should they extend ? How far forward ? How 
much space should be permitted between each window? Give reasons 
for your answers. , 

149. Why should round-topped, Gothic, transom or colored glass 
windows be avoided in school-house construction ? 

150. Describe typical faults in window-construction . 

151. Under what conditions and for what reasons should window- 
openings be beveled ? 

152. Under what conditions are prisms or reflectors to be employed 
in daylight illumination? Explain their purpose, method of application, 
and the results obtained. 

(c) Shades , : " 

153. Discuss the defects of awnings, and of Venetian and other 
blinds for shading schoolhouse windows. 

154. What is the best color and material for shades ? W^hy are dark 
colors to be avoided ? ; 

155. Ought shades to be hung at the top, at the bottom or in the 
middle of the window? ... 

156. What advantages are gained by the use of adjustable window 
shades ? 

157. What is the most common fault in the adjustment of shades 
in the average classroom ? , , ■ . - 

158. What is the best finish for the schoolroom wall ?" Why should 
the wall never be papered ? , 

' (d) Color of walls 

159. What is the best color or colors for the side-walls of the class- 
room ? For the ceiling ? Why are dark or saturated colors to be avoided ? 

160. Give approximate figures showing the amount of light reflected 
from white, cream, buff, yellow, blue, Hght green, red, and brown walls. 



26 

161. What colors are to be preferred for sunshiny rooms? For rooms 
with a north exposure ? 

162. Work out sample color schemes for the side-walls, ceiling, and 
woodwork of classrooms with south, east, and north exposures. 

163. Is there any objection to the use of dead white ceilings ? Would 
the common steel ceiling be desirable for classrooms ? 

164. Is there any real advantage in the use of greenish black in place 
of the ordinary dead black black-boards ? 

165. Where should black-boards be placed ? Where not, and why? 

166. Explain Scott's plan for eliminating the absorption of light 
by excessive blackboard surface. 

167. Describe the use of glass partitions for transmitting light into 
'inside' classrooms. Why are these arrangements to be condemned ? 

168. Suggest methods for improving the illumination in schoolhouses 
already built which are found defective in their lighting. 

{e) Artificial illumination 

169. State the advantages and the disadvantages of kerosene, gas, 
(bat- wing and Welsbach burners), acetylene, and electricity for artificial 
illumination. 

170. Discuss the relative efficiency and desirability of arc lights, 
ordinary incandescent lights, tungsten lights, and the Nemst light. 

171. Explain the increase of efficiency in gas and electric lighting 
from the use of various forms of reflectors. 

172. What is the most efficient method cf illuminating schoolrooms 
by electricity? (See Sturgis and Standish.) 

173. What forms of reflectors afford the highest efficiency in arti- 
ficial lighting ? 

174. Why should Welsbach or electric lights never be employed with- 
out scientifically designed reflectors ? 



27 



175. Draw a plan of the standard schoolroom and indicate the posi- 
tions for the installation of artificial Ughts that give the most efficient 
distribution of light and the least disturbance from shadows. (See 
School Hygiene, i., No. 6, Jan. 1909, p. 79.) 



E. School Desks 

References 

Barry — ^v. Marble — 121. 

Bumham — 39-48. Newsholme — iii. 

Burrage— V. Porter— 209-215, 242-3. 

Cohn— xi. Risley— 397-407, 416-7. 

Elkington-^5-55. Rowe— 51-4, 67-72. 

Ellis— 66-75. Shaw— vii. 

Fowler-^9-53. Snell— 26-37. 

Hope— X. Sturgis— 1905, 81-6; 1906, 86-8. 

Kotelmann— vi. Young— 270-282. 

Suggestions for further reading 

R. W. Lovett — ^The requirements of proper school furniture, in School 
Hyg., i., Oct., 1908, 39-41. 

Medical Inspection: suggestions to teachers and school physicians, 
issued by the Mass. Brd of Educ, Boston, 1907. Pp. 29. (Same in 
Gulick and Ayers, Medical Inspection of Schools, New York, 1908, 
App. i.) 

F. Smedley, Rept. Dept. Child-Study, Chicago Public Schools, No. 3, 
1902, 3-6. (School desks.) 

176. Give some account of the variations in the height of pupils in 
the same grade. 

177. At what age does the most rapid growth of girls occur? Of 
boys? 

178. A German inspector states that "almost 90 per cent, of all the 
spinal distortions which come under the physician's notice begin during 
the years of attendance at school." Is this fact related to the use of 
school desks ? If so, in what way ? 

28 



29 

179. Is the long-continued use of desk and chair more likely to be in- 
jurious to a child than to an adult ? 

180. State fully the evil effects of ill-fitting desks and chairs. 

181. Show hotv curvature of the spine is frequently caused by wrong 
habits of posture acquired in the schoolroom. 

182. Would you recommend the abolishment of desks and the sub- 
stitution of tables and chairs in the lower grades? Why? 

183. Can you give any suggestions as to the need for, and construc- 
tion of 'work-desks' ? (See J. Dewey, School and Society.) 

184. Outline the requirements of an ideal school desk and chair. 

185. Why must the chair and the desk be adjustable in height ? 

186. What is the proper height of the chair and how is it determined ? 
Of the desk? 

187. Is it necessary to have all the desks in a given room of the ad- 
justable pattern? If not, why not? How many stationary desks could 
be used ? (See especially Smedley.) 

188. What is meant by 'distance' in the adjustment of school desks ? 

189. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of a 'plus' dis- 
tance ? Of a 'minus' distance ? What is the best adjustment of dis- 
tance ? 

190. Compare the effect of a 'plus' distance and too low a desk. 

191. Are most schoolroom desks set at a 'plus' or at a 'minus' dis- 
tance from the chair ? Why ? 

192. What would be the theoretically ideal slope of the desk for read- 
ing ? For writing or drawing ? 

193. What is the objection in practise to the use of a slope greater 
than 15 deg. ? What is the best practical slope? What is the actual 
slope of most desks ? 

194. Could the desk be designed to be adjustable for slope ? Why are 
such desks not used ? ' 



30 

195. Why should the seat be of the 'chair' rather than of the 'settee' 
form ? Why of the 'saddle' or concaved type ? 

196. Why should the edges of the seat be rounded ? 

197. What should be the width of the seat ? The length ? Why ? 

198. Why is the ordinary back-rest (supporting the shoulders) to be 
avoided in school chairs ? 

199. What is the advantage of the hip-rest over the back-rest? 
What is the best shape of the hip-rest ? Why should it be adjustable ? 

200. What form of desk and chair now on the market best meets the 
demands of a hygienic desk and chair ? (See Mass. Brd . Educ, pp. 28-9.) 

201. Why should foot-rests be condemned ? 

202. Why should double desks never be used ? 

203. Who should be responsible for the proper seating of all pupils ? 

204. Why are adjustable desks often neglected after they are installed ? 

205. What measures must the teacher take to insure proper posture 
in addition to securing proper adjustment of desks ? 

206. Why do a great many schools have poor seating appliances ? 

207. Which is more important: the installation and use of adjustable 
desks or persistent effort on the part of the teacher to build up the habit 
of proper posture ? 

208. How long ought a first grade pupil to be seated in his desk during 
a school day? How long at any single period? An 8th grade pupil? 
How long are they thus seated in ordinary school practise ? 

209. Will a properly adjusted desk and chair enable any child to 
maintain proper posture continuously for an hour ? 

210. Why are physical exercises to be employed to counteract the evil 
effects of sitting at desks? What should be the nature of these exer- 
cises ? 



31 

211. Do most adults carry their shoulders symmetrically ? 

212. What are the most characteristic positions adopted by school 
children ? 

213. Visit a classroom and count the number of children that are 
sitting correctly. Let the teacher request all the pupils to sit erect : note 
how long the correct posture is maintained. What appear to be the reas- 
ons for the faulty positions observed ? 



F. Heating and Ventilating 

References 

Barry — iii., iv. Kotelmann — iv., v. 

Briggs— xi., 210-8, 248-257, 348-389. Lincoln— x. 

Bumham— 22-33. Marble— 8-38, 67-72,82-9, llS-9. 

Burrage — iii. Moore — ii.toviii. 

Clark — 62-79. News holme — v., vi., vii. 

Elkington — ii., App. i. Porter — ^xvii., xviii., 81-9. 

Ellis— 26-38. Shaw— iv. 

Fowler — 62-93. Sturgis— passim. 

Gerhard — 137-143. Wheelwright — xi., et passim. 

Hope— iii., 74-5. Young— 283-351. 

Suggestions for further reading 

J. S. Billings — ^The information necessary to determine the merits of 
the heating and ventilating of a school building, in Proc. Nat. Educ. 
Assoc, 1882, 11-19, in Proc. Dept. Supt. at end of the volume. (Also 
published as Cir. Information, Bur. Educ, Washington, No. 2, 1882.) 

R. C. Carpenter — Heating and Ventilating Buildings, New York, 4th 
ed, 1903. Ch. xvii., on "Schoolhouse warming and ventilation," written 
by S. H.Woodbridge. (The same article appears in Chandler and Wheel- 
wright — Municipal Architecture in Boston, and in Brd. of Educ. of the 
State of Conn., 1898.) 

J. B. Cohen — ^The air of towns, in Smithsonian Misc. Coll., xxxix., 
1896, No. 1073, App. i., or p. 40. 

G. B. Morrison — ^Ventilation of School Buildings, New York, 1887. 
(Vol. iv. in the Inter. Educ. series, Appleton. Good in some respects, but 
out of date in others.) 

C. Smart — ^The chemical examination of air as applied to questions 
of ventilation, in Proc. Nat. Educ Assoc, 1892, 19-28. 

32 



33 

W. M. Wilson— Atmospheric moisture and artificial heating, in Proc. 
Conv. Weather Bur. Officials, Bull. No. 24, U. S. Dept. Agri., Washington, 
1899, 12.3-5. 

Information may also be obtained from numerous catalogs and cir- 
culars issued by the larger heating and ventilating companies, e. g., 
the Buffalo Forge Co., Buffalo, N. Y.; the American Blower Co., De- 
troit, Mich., et al. 

(a) Air and respiration 

214. State the chemical composition of atmospheric air. Of ex- 
pired air. 

215. How many alveoli are contained in the lungs of the average 
person ? What is the total area of the surface exposed to air within the 
lungs ? 

216. How often does the blood of the whole body pass through the 
Jungs ? 

217. Give some figures to indicate the magnitude of the volume of 
air used in respiration each day. How many cubic feet of air are used ? 
How much dees this air weigh? How does the weight of air used in 
respiration compare with the weight of food used in digestion ? 

218. What are the effects of respiration upon the temperature, the 
humidity, and the volume of the air thus used ? 

219. Do children give off more, or less carbon dioxid than adults? 
Does this circumstance warrant the placing of a larger number of small 
than of large children in a room of given size ? 

220. Does expired air rise, or fall, or is it speedily diffused ? 

221.' What are the directly perceptible effects of breathing impure 
air? What are the more remote or cumulative effects of persistent 
'exposure' to such air? 

222. Why is the vitiation of the air of a schoolroom often unnoted 
by those who have occupied the room, the it is plainly evident to the 
new comer ? 



34 

223. .Statistics show that school-teachers are somewhat more liable 
to death from consumption than are persons engaged in all other occupa- 
tions (taken collectively) . Why ? 

224. What factors, aside from the respiration of the occupants, contri- 
bute to the evil effects of crowded and unventilated rooms ? 

225. When the schoolroom is occupied, does its humidity tend to 
rise or to fall? Why? 

226. What noxious elements are thrown into the air from burning 
gas-jets ? 

227. Is the carbon dioxid mainly responsible for the evil effects of 
poorly ventilated rooms ? 

228. "The aqueous vapor arising from the breath and from the 
general surface of the body contains a minute proportion of animal 
refuse matter which has been proved by actual experiment to be deadly 
poision." Who made the experiment ? Are these results accepted by all 
authorities ? 

229. Is air that contains 8 parts per 10,000 of carbon dioxid to be 
considered as pure or impure ? What is the permissible limit of CO^ in 
the schoolroom ? 

230. What amounts of CO^ are commonly found to be present in 
actual schoolroom tests ? 

231. What amounts of CO^ correspond to the descriptive terms, — 
pure, fair, bad, very bad, extremely bad? 

232. If the air of a classroom is so impure as to give rise to the typi- 
cal schoolroom smell,' what is the minimal amount of carbon -dioxid 
that may be assumed to be present ? 

233. Give some account of the methods by which schoolroom air may 
be tested ? What is the principle upon which these methods are based ? 
What method is most accurate ? What method is simplest ? 

(6) Fresh air requirements in the schoolroom 

234. Give and explain a formula for computing the number of cubic 
feet of fresh air that must be supplied per capita per minute to maintain 



35 

any given standard of purity. In practise, it is found necessary to supply 
nearly one-third more air than is theoretically indicated: why ? 

235. What is the usual standard for the amount of fresh air inflow- 
needed ? 

236. Show that the increase in the number of pupils seated in a given 
room, e. g., from 40 to 56, markedly increases the demands of number of 
changes of air of the room per hour. In a room containing 46 pupils, 
and having the dimensions 30 x 25 x 13 feet, in how many minutes must 
the air of the room be completely changed in order to maintain the air at 
the proper standard ? 

237. Comment on the statement: "We owe our health largely to the 
incapacities of carpenters and the limitations of building construction." 

238. In general, what means must be taken to avoid causing danger- 
ous draughts from the fresh-air supply ? 

239. If the inlet-flues are not located above the heads of the pupils, 
what is the maximal permissible velocity of air-flow ? 

240. What should be the maximal temperature of the incoming air ? 

241. What appliances are used to secure deflection or diffusion of the 
incoming air, and why are they needed ? 

242. What should be the area of the inlet flues for supplying a school- 
room of the standard dimensions ? Should an ordinary register-plate 
be used to cover the point of entrance ? 

243. What is the anemometer, and how is it used for testing venti- 
lation? 

244. Does the total amount of air-supply indicated by the anemom- 
eter represent the total influx of fresh air in the classroom ? 

245. By what methods can the nature of the circulation of the air 
after it enters the room be determined ? 

246. Describe a method by which the amount of fresh air entering 
the classroom may be determined indirectly by reference to the results 
of the CO^ test and other factors. 



36 

247. What are the most important principles that should govern the 
location, dimensions,. and arrangement of the cold air supply? Why- 
is a cold-air room better than the usual cold-air box ? 

248. Explain the installation of 'return' or 'rotated' air flues. What 
is their purpose ? How are they apt to be misused ? 

249. How are air-filters made ? When should they be installed ? 
Are 'dry' or 'wet' filters most effective? 

(c) Humidity 

250. Define or explain the terms: — humidity, relative humidity, 
saturation-point, dew-point. How much water can be held in suspen- 
sion by a cubic foot of air at zei'o, at 32 deg., at 70 deg. Fahrenheit ? 

251. What is the relative humidity of outdoor air in northern climates 
during the winter months ? Of indoor air in schoolhouses at the same 
time ? 

252. If air at 32 deg. with a relative humidity of 75%, is heated to 
70 deg., what will its relative humidity be, providing no water is lost in 
the operation ? 

253. What are the effects of breathing air of a very low degree of 
humidity? 

254. What is meant by the 'sensible temperature' ? Is it the same 
as the temperature recorded by a 'wet-bulb' thermometer? 

255. Discuss the economy of humidifying the warm air supplied to 
schoolrooms. If the evaporation of water for the purpose of moisten- 
ing air demands the use of more coal, how is it proposed to save money 
by humidifying the air ? 

256. Describe various devices or methods for supplying moisture to 
the air of schoolrooms. 

(d) Temperature 

257. How much heat energy is thrown off from the bodies of school 
children when at study in the classroom ? 



' 37 

258. What physiological considerations determine the range of hy- 
gienic temperature ? ■ . • 

259. What is the proper standard for the temperature of the class- 
room? What is the permissible range of temperature within which 
pupils may be reasonably required to remain in the classroom ? '- ■ ' 

260. Is the average classroom over-heated or under- heated ? 

261. At what temperature should the fresh-air inlet deliver air to the 
classroom? 

262. Where should the thermometers be placed to make a thorough 
examination of the temperature of the classroom ? 

(e) Methods of ventilating 

263. How is it that a certain amount of ventilation takes place even 
in a room whose windows and doors are closed ? Why does the opening 
of windows, on the other hand, sometimes fail to produce adequate ven- 
tilation? 

264. Under what conditions of external temperature, wind, etc. is 
it safe to open all classroom windows to their fullest extent ? 

265. If the outdoor temperature is very low, say 20 deg., is it safe to 
open windows at all: if so, in what way? 

266. Describe th^ general principles which should govern ventilation 
by windows, (a) when the windows are all on one side of the room, (b) 
when there are windows on both sides. 

267. What simple devices may be employed to allow the opening of 
windows without causing dangerous draughts ? 

268. If the source of heat is within the classroom, e. g., stove or ra- 
diators, and there is no system of mechanical ventilation,. can anything 
be done to secure ventilation ? 

269. Why should direct heating (stoves or radiators in the class- 
room) be unqualifiedly condemned ? '__■-- • ': ■ 

270 Why is indirect ventilation (source of heat outside the room and 



38 

air drawn from outdoors over the heating surfaces) inadequate when no 
outlet flues are provided ? 

271. Draw simple diagrams to indicate the course of the air current 
(when the classroom is supplied with both inlet and outlet flues) for 
various locations of the flues. 

272. What is the most satisfactory position for the warm-air inlet, — 
in the floor or in the side-wall ? Near the floor or near the ceiling ? For 
the outlet flue ? 

273. Describe the experiments of Briggs upon the location of flues, 
and their application in the construction of the Bridgeport, Conn, high 
school. What criticisms have been made on these experiments ? 

274. In 1855, a writer criticizes the installation in a Philadelphia 
High School of inlet flues of 1 sq. foot, section (for a room 38 x 22) on 
the ground that they were too large : what would be the size recommended 

to-day ? 

275. What is meant by a 'gravity' system of heating and venti- 
lating ? By a 'natural' system ? 

276. What is an aspirating chimney? What is its purpose and its 
construction ? Give some indication of the cost of operating and of the 
efficiency of this device. 

277. What is meant by a 'mechanical' system of ventilation ? What 
is the difference between the 'plenum' and the 'vacuum' system ? Which 
is more efficient ? Why? :;| 

278. For what purposes is the vacuum system particularly adapted ? 

279. Is it possible to secure perfect ventilation in any classroom 
without the use of some mechanical device for moving the air ? 

280. Give some indication of the cost of providing adequate ven- 
tilation for the average classroom of standard size. How much more 
does it cost to heat and ventilate than merely to heat ? 

(/) Methods of heating 

281. What are the advantages and disadvantages of open fire-places 



39 

as a source of heat ? How does the 'ventilating-grate' diflEer from the 
ordinary fireplace ? 

282. What are the advantages and disadvantages of stoves as a 
means of schoolhouse warming ? 

283. What is meant by a 'jacketed' stove and why is it superior to 
the 'unjacketed' form ? Suggest means for the conversion of unjacketed 
into jacketed stoves at a small expense. 

284. Ought jacketed stoves to be supplied with air from within or 
from without the schoolroom ? 

285. Show why the ordinary furnace is virtually a jacketed stove ? 

286. Compare the efficiency and desirability of furnace and of steam 
or hot- water heating for schoolhouses. How large a building is it possible 
to heat effectively by furnaces ? Why are furnaces used in place of steam 
in most small schoolhouses ? Which source of heat consumes the greater 
amount of coal? Which system distributes the heat more effectively? 
Which affords the better ventilation ? 

287. At what temperature ought the air supply from the furnace to 
enter the classroom ? Is the air-supply of the average schoolroom at 
this temperature ? 

288. What is meant by a 'mixing-damper,' and what is its use in 
schoolhouse heating? 

289. Explain the differences between direct, indirect, direct-indirect, 
and combination systems of steam or hot-water heating. 

290. "Heating by direct radiation alone can not be too heartily 
condemned." Why? 

291. Why is the direct-indirect system of heating and ventilating 
almost invariably inadequate ? 

292. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of indirect 
steam-heating ? 

293. Give some account of modifications of the indirect system, such 
as the use of central heating coils, tempering coils, double air-ducts, etc. 



G. Sanitation 

References 

Barry— S-12. Kotelmann— 94-103. 

Briggs— xii., 205-210, 245-8, 288-307 Lincoln— 96-7. 

Burnham— 36-9. Marble— 39-49, 79-82, 114-118. 

Burrage — iv. Moore — ix. 

Clark — 79-86. Newsholme — viii., xvi. 

Elkington — v., vi. Porter — xx. 

Ellis— 14-16, 58-51. Shaw— v., vi. 

Fowler — 54-7. Sturgis — passim. 

Gerhard — 146-162. • Wheelwright — 275-285, et passim 

Hope— 9-13, 75-9. Young— 258, 352-362. 

Suggestions for further reading 

J. F. Anderson — The antiseptic and germicidal properties of solutions 
of formaldehyde and their action upon toxins, Bull. No. 39, Hyg. Lab., 
U. S. Pub. Health & Mar.-Hosp. Serv., Washington, Pp. 46. 

A. Davison — Death in school drinking cups, in Sch. Hyg., i., Dec, 
1908, 65. (Extracts from the Technical World Magazine, August, 1908.) 

T. B. McClintic — Chloride of ^inc as a deodorant, antiseptic and 
germicide, Bull. No. 22. Hyg. Lab. U. S. Pub. Health & Mar.-Hosp. 
Serv. The limitations of formaldehyde gas as a disinfectant, do., No. 27, 
1906. 

Information may also be obtained from catalogs and circulars of 
several manufacturing concerns, e. g., on Vacuum cleaning systems for 
schools, from the American Air Cleaning Co., Milwaukee, Wis.; on the 
septic tank sewage disposal system, from the N. O. Nelson Mfg. Co., 
St. Louis, Mo.: on oil dressings for schoolrooms from the Standard Oil 
Co.; on the Cedarwax floor dressing from C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. 
Y. For rules governing the work of the janitors of the Boston public 
schools, see Sch. Hyg., i., Jan., 1909, 81-2. 



41 



(a) Toilet rooms 

294. Where ought toilet rooms to be located? Under what condi- 
tions is it safe to place them in the basement ? What are the advantages 
and the disadvantages of detached buildings in the school yard ? 

295. It is generally conceded that the sanitaries of the average town 
and country school are first-class nuisances, being unsanitary, unhygienic, 
and conducive to indecency and immorality. How may these conditions 
be improved ? 

296. State the rules which determine the number of closet seats and 
urinals required. 

297. Ought toilet rooms to be heated, lighted, and ventilated ? How 
can heating be secured if the rooms are in outbuildings ? How can ade- 
quate light and ventilation be secured if in the basement ? 

298. Explain the construction, operation, and relative advantages and 
disadvantages of wet, dry, and earth closets. ? 

299. Why is automatic flushing desirable for wet closets ? 

300. Some authorities believe that a cess-pool is less dangerous than 
a poorly constructed, leaky sewer: others call the cess-pool the 'king of 
nuisances,' and assert that no system of wet closets should be considered 
for a moment that cannot be connected with a regular sewerage system. 
Which view is correct ? 

301. Explain the construction, operation and advantages of the 
septic-tank as an adjunct of the cess-pool system. 

302. What are the most important precautions to be observed in the 
installation and operation of a system of dry closets ? Why are dry 
closets often deemed more hygienic than wet closets operated in con- 
nection with a city sewerage system ? 

303. What are the most important precautions to be observed in the 
installation and operation of earth closets ? 

304. What objections may be made to the use of brick or cement in 
the construction of closet-vaults ? 



42 

305. Explain the construction and operation of a movable vault 
closet. 

306. Urinals are commonly the most unhygienic and least satisfactory 
of all the sanitary appliances in the schoolhouse. Indicate the best form 
and materials for their construction. What care and attention should the 
urinals have ? 

307. Discuss the duties of the janitor with regard to the sanitary 
appliances of the schoolhouse. 

308. How may disagreeable odors from the toilet appliances be 
avoided ? Is there any advantage in the use of deodorants ? If so, 
what ? What agencies serve most effectively to disinfect the toilet rooms 
and toilet appliances ? 

(6) Drinking water 

309. If the school obtains drinking water from its own well, what 
rules should govern its location ? How often, and at what times ought 
the. well to be cleaned ? Ought the water to be examined by a chemist 
or bacteriologist ? How often ? 

310. Describe a simple rough test for the purity of drinking water. 

311. Why should the use of a common drinking cup or dipper be 
condemned ? 

312. Why is the drinking fountain (with a small vertical jet) to be 
preferred to the customary faucet and cup ? 

313. Are there any forms of filters which will convert dangerous into 
safe drinking water ? 

314. What forms of diseases are particularly likely to be transmitted 
in drinking water ? By the use of common drinking utensils ? 

315. If there exists the slightest doubt as to the purity of the drink- 
ing water, what steps should be taken to adapt it for drinking purposes ? 

(c) School lavatories and baths 

316. Can the sanitary equipment of a schoolhouse be considered 
adequate without provision of lavatories or some provision for washing 



and drying the hands ? What equipment would you recommend for city 
schools ? For country schools ? 1 

317. What steps ought the teacher to take to inculcate habits of 
cleanliness with regard to the washing of hands and face ? 

318. Why is the use of a single towel, however large and however 
often it is changed, to be condemned ? What would you substitute ? 

319. What reasons may be cited for and against the introduction of 
school baths ? Where have they been tried ? What is the best form of 
bath ? How much does it cost to install and maintain them ? 

320. What arrangements are commonly made for their use, e. g., how 
many pupils use the bathing room at once ? How often is each pupil 
supposed to use the bath ? Is bathing made compulsory ? Is there any 
provision for supervision by adults ? 

321. In the construction and operation of school baths, what pre- 
cautions must be taken to avoid causing the pupils to take cold ? 

(d) Cleaning, disinfection, and janitor service \ 

322. Discuss the moral and hygienic importance of cleanliness in 
the schoolhouse. \ 

323. What measures for insuring cleanliness, e. g., sweeping, dusting, 
washing floors, windows, toilet appliances, cleaning blackboards, chalk- 
trays, etc. ought to be performed at least once a day ? What at least once 
a week ? Once a term ? Once a year ? 

324. At what time of day should the daily cleaning be done ? Why? 

325. What are the advantages of oiled floors ? Are there any dis- 
advantages ? 

326. In what ways does dust enter the scholroom ? What is the com- 
position of schoolroom dust ? In what ways is it dangerous to health ? 

327. How can the chalk-dust nuisance be mitigated ? 

328. How can the amount of dirt brought in by the pupils be reduced ? 

329. Describe the system of vacuum cleaning. What is the cost of 



44 

installing and operating such a system ? Why is it to be highly re- 
commended ? 

330. Which need the greater care to ensure cleanliness, old or new 
buildings ? 

331. Is there any advantage in the type of sweeping and dusting that 
merely stirs up the dust that has already settled ? How may the amount 
of floating dust be reduced ? 

332. How often should floors be swept ? How often washed ? 

333. What treatment should be given to desks at the end of the year 
or term when their occupants are to be changed ? 

334. What dangers arise from the use of common school material, 
e. g., books, pencils, pen-holders, drawing materials, etc.? Would it be 
possible for tuberculosis to be communicated from one child to another 
from the 'pencil-chewing' habit ? 

335. Describe plans for avoiding the dangers just mentioned. How 
may school text-books be adequately disinfected? Need this be done if 
no actual epidemic has appeared ? 

336. If some contagious disease has actually appeared in the school, 
what measures should be taken to disinfect the classroom and all its 
equipment ? Should this be done by the teacher or by the health author- 
ities ? 

337. What are the merits and the hmitations of formaldehyde as a 
school disinfectant ? 

338. Why do the sanitary appliances and general sanitary condition 
of the schoolhouse need systematic inspection? By whom should this 
be done, and how often? 

339. Make a list of the duties of the school janitor. 

340. What should be the qualifications of an ideal janitor? Does 
he need instruction in the performance of his duties ? Does he commonly 
receive any such instruction or guidance ? 

341. It is sometimes stated that the janitor is the most important 
single feature of the 'sanitary equipment' of the schoolhouse. Why? 



H. Vision 



References 



Barry — vii. 

Bumham-49-60. 

Burrage — x. 

Cohn — i. to X., xix. to xxii. 

Elkington — viii. 

Hope — ix. 

Kotelraann — ix . 

Lincoln — vii. 



Marble— 56-6. 
Newsholme — xvii. 
Porter — xi. 
Risley— 353-379. 
Rowe — App. iii. 
Shaw— ix., 247. 
Snell— 1-17, 58-70. 
Young— 100-119, 137-8. 



Suggestions for further reading 

F. Allport— The eye and its care, Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co., 
1896. Pp. 165. 

A. W. Calhoun — Effects of student-life upon eyesight, Cir. of Informa- 
tion, No. 6, Bureau Educ, Washington, 1881. Pp. 29. 

H. Cohn— Die Sehleistungen von 50,000 Breslauer Schulkindern, 
Breslau, 1899. Pp. 148. • 

W. J. Conklin — A report upon the sanitary conditions of the public 
schools of Dayton with special reference to the eyesight of the pupils, 
Dayton, Ohio, 1880. Pp. 32. 

G. M. Gould — The cause, nature, and consequences of eyestrain, in 
Pop. Sci. Mo., Ixvii., Dec, 1905, 738-747. 

G. M. Gould— Biographic clinics, vols. I. to V., Philadelphia, P. Blaki- 
ston Son & Co., 1904-7. 

S. D. Risley — Weak eyes in the public schools of Philadelphia, Phila- 
delphia, 1881. 

D. B. Roosa — Defective eyesight and the principles of its relief by 
glasses. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1889. Pp. 186. 

45 



46 

W. D. Scott — The sacrifice of the eyes of schoolchildren, in Pop. Sci. 
Mo., Ixxi., Oct., 1907, 303-312. 

J. W. Smith— Defects of vision and hearing, Chicago, 1904. Pp. 103. 
(Chapter on color-blindness is inaccurate.) 

E. J. Swift — Eye defects in students and children, in Ped. Sem., v., 
Oct., 1897, 202-220. | , 

J. E. Weeks — The care of the eyes of children while at school, in 
Teachers Coll. Record, vi., March, 1905, 30-42. 

C. H. Williams — The use and care of the eyes, especially during school 
years. Lecture 3 (pp. 65-90) in Six lectures on school hygiene, Boston 
1885. 

(a) Vision in general 

342. Show the importance of the eye in school work. Cite evidence 
that defective vision exerts a positive handicap on school work. 

343. How frequent is visual defect in school children ? 

344. Describe the construction of the eye and compare with the 
photographic camera. 

345. Describe the muscles that move the eye-ball. 

346. In what ways may the normal eye be deemed imperfect as an 
optical instrument ? 

347. Explain the mechanism of accommodation, showing the function 
of the lens, ciliary ligament, and ciliary muscle. , 

348. Show clearly the biological reason for the fact that accommoda- 
tion is 'at rest' during distant vision, and discuss the bearing of this fact 
upon the prevalence of eye-troubles in modern life. 

349. Comment on the statement: "The genius of evolution, so far as 
the eye is concerned, never foresaw the demands to be made upon the 
organ by our modem life." 

350. Define emmetropia, presbyopia, myopia, hyperopia, astigma- 
tism, asthenopia, and amblyopia. 



47 

351. Show by a schematic drawing the basis for emmetropia, myopia, 
and hyperopia. 

352. What kinds of lenses are used to correct myopia ? Hyperopia ? 
Astigmatism ? Compound defects ? 

353. How great need the discrepancy in the length of the eye-ball be 
to produce perceptible hyperopia or myopia ? 

354. Is the eye in early childhood usually emmetropic, myopic, or 
hyperopic ? 

355. Define the 'near-point' and the 'far-point.' Where do these lie 
in emmetropia ? In myopia ? In hyperopia ? 

{b) Myopia 

356. Describe the vision of the myopic eye. 

357. Discuss the relation of myopia to school life. 

358. Is an emmetropic eye likely to develop myopia after maturity 
is reached ? 

359. When is myopia most likely to appear ? Why then ? 

360. Give evidence to show that "myopia is essentially a disease of 
civilization and culture." 

361. What causes have been assumed to produce myopia? . Is it 
commonly directly inherited ? What are the most serious predisposing 
conditions? Explain the statement that hyperopia often passes into 
myopia "thru the turnstile of astigmatism." 

362. What conclusions concerning the nature of early schoolwork 
are inevitably forced upon us by the study of the development of myopia 
in the school ? 

363. Give statistics showing the frequency of myopia under various 
conditions. 

364. What are the most common symptoms that may lead you to 
expect the existence of myopia in a pupil ? 

365. What is the simplest test for myopia ? 



48 

366. Is myopia usually found 'pure' or 'complicated' with other op- 
tical defects ? 

367. Can myopia be cured ? Can it be alleviated ? How ? 

368. State ten important rules that should guide the daily activities 
of the myopic pupil. 

369. What occupations or professions should the myope avoid in 
choosing his life-work ? 

370. Why is myopia a dangerous condition? Why is it called a 
disease ? 

(c) Hyperopia 

371. Describe the vision of the hyperopic eye. 

372. Is hyperopia commonly inherited or acquired ? 

373. How may a person have hyperopia and never realize it ? ■ 

374. Hyperopia is considered to be a not infrequent factor in the 
causation of truancy. Why? 

375. Is hyperopia likely to produce more serious or less serious phys- 
iological disturbances than myopia ? 

376. What rules should guide the hyperope in the use of his eyes ? 

377. Why does hyperopia so often escape detection by the ordinary 
schoolroom test of visual acuity ? 

378. Enumerate and explain the symptoms and accompaniments of 
hyperopia. What are the most common symptoms ? 

379. What is the nature and what are the causes and effects of eye- 
strain ? 

{d) Astigmatism 

380. Show the relation between corneal curvature and astigmatism. 

381. Describe the vision of the astigmatic eye. 

382. What is meant by the 'axis' of astigmatism? 

383. Is astigmatism commonly found alone or in conjunction with 
other refractive errors ? 



49 

384. What 'direct' and what 'secondary' symptoms might lead you 
to expect that a pupil was suffering from astigmatism ? 

385. Why may a small degree of astigmatism or of hyperopia set up a 
serious disturbance of the pupil's general health, while excessive degrees 
may fail to produce these consequences ? 

(e) Muscular deficiencies 

386. Define the terms 'heterophoria' and 'heterotropia.' 

387. Explain the terms 'strabismus,' 'squint,' 'diplopia.' 

388. What are the causes of muscular deficiencies ? 

389. What is the effect of uncorrected strabismus? 

390. What is the treatment for strabismus? When must treatment 
be instituted to be successful ? 

391. Describe two methods of testing the eyes for muscular defi- 
ciencies. 

392. What variety of heterophoria commonly accompanies myopia ? 
Hyperopia? 

393. What is 'exanopsic amblyopia' ? 

(/) Asthenopia 

394. What are the causes of asthenopia ? What type of children 
are most apt to exhibit this trouble ? 

395. What are the most common symptoms of asthenopia? How 
would it be revealed in tests of visual acuity ? 

396. What treatment does asthenopia require ? What rules should 
govern the schoolwork of an asthenopic pupil ? 

397. Is asthenopia associated with errors of refraction or not ? 

(g) Methods of testing visual acuity 

398. Explain clearly the use of visual acuity tests: state the distance 
used, the kind of illumination needed, method of covering the unused 



50 

eye, meaning of the numbers given on the test-cards, method of record- 
ing the results, precautions to be observed, etc. 

399. What questions should the examiner ask of the pupil, and why? 

400. Should children who wear glasses be tested with them on or off? 

401. What types of defect may escape detection by the distance-test, 
and why? 

402. What is meant by 'accommodation-spasm' ? 

403. What is a cycloplegic ? Why used by oculists ? Should 'drops' 
be used in a schoolroom test ? 

404. A pupil reads the standard 20-foot line correctly, but complains 
of pain in the eyes or head : is he to be recorded as normal or defective 
in vision ? 

405. How is astigmatism tested ? Why are radiating lines employed ? 

406. Describe supplementary tests that may assist in the detection 
of hyperopia. 

407. If a child reads only the 30-foot line at the 20-foot distance, is 
he necessarily myopic ? If not, what may account for the deficiency ? 

408. How may illiterate children be tested ? 

409. How often should the eyes of schoolchildren be tested ? In what 
grade may such tests begin ? 

410. If a pupil passes the ordinary schoolroom test, should he be told 
that his eyes are "all right" ? 

411. What is the teacher's duty with respect to the pupils whose eyes 
seem to be defective ? What changes should be made in the seating of 
the pupils ? 

412. What steps can teachers take to insure the consultation of spec- 
ialists by parents of pupils who appear to be defective ? 

413. Pupils whose eyes have been pronounced defective have not in- 
frequently been taken by their parents to a 'Ten-cent store," and been 
fitted to glasses costing 10 or 15 cents a pair. How may the teacher seek 
to avoid such an outcome ? 



51 

414. Do you know of any objections that have been raised by ocu- 
lists to the conduct by teachers of schoolroom tests of visual acuity ? 

(h) Color-blindness 

415. Explain what is meant by color-blindness. How does partial 
differ from total color-blindness ? 

416. Is there any warrant for the common distinction between red- 
blindness and green-blindness ? 

417. Describe the vision of the red-green color-blind? Of the 
totally color-blind ? 

418. How frequent is red-green blindness? How frequent is total 
color-blindness ? What is the probable explanation of the greater fre- 
quency of color-blindness in males ? 

419. What is the cause of color-blindness ? How early in life does it 
appear ? Is it ever due to inadequate training ? 

420. What is color- weakness ? How does it resemble and how does it 
differ from color-blindness ? 

421. Describe the use of the Holmgren test for color-blindness.* The 
Nagel test. Why is the latter more adequate than the former ? 

422. Ought tests for color-blindness to be included in all school tests 
of vision ? 

423. What can be done to remedy color-blindness ? Color- weakness ? 
Color-ignorance ? 

424. What professions or occupations are, or should be closed to the 
color-blind and the color- weak? Would it be possible for a color- weak 
individual to pass the Holmgren test and yet be responsible for, let us say, 
a railway accident, thru failure to perceive signals correctly ? 

(i) Inflammatory conditions 

425. What are the most common forms of inflammation encountered 

in the eyes of schoolchildren ? 

*A set of Holmgren worsteds for testing color-blindness, with directions pre- 
pared by the author, may be purchased of C. U. Stoelting, 12 South Green St., 
Chicago, 111. The Nagel cards may be imported by physicians thru ^the same 
firm. 



02 

426. Explain what is meant by 'trachoma,' 'granulated lids,' folli- 
cular catarrh of the conjunctiva,' 'blepharitis.' Which of these dis- 
turbances is must serious ? Which of them are contagious ? 

427. Give some statistics showing the prevalence of the above con- 
ditions in school children. 

428. Explain the method of everting the eye-lid to examine the 
condition of the child's conjunctiva and lids. 

429. In what ways may contagious inflammations of the eyes be 
transmitted in the school, and what steps should be taken by the teacher 
or school authorities to prevent such transmission ? 

430. Is inflammation of the eyes in any form a sufficient cause for 
exclusion of the child from school ? 



I. Hygiene of reading 



References 



Allport— 148-150. 
Barry— 79-81. 
Burnham — 49-51 . 
Burrage — 155-7. 
Cohn — xviii. 
Elkington— 102-3, 156. 
Hope— 120-7. 
Kotelmann— 260-7. 



Lincoln — 53-7. 
Newsholme — 113-4. 
Porter— 215-6. 
Risley— 407-414. 
Rowe — 54. 
Shaw— 171-183. 
Snell— 37-41. 
Young— 192-4. 



Suggestions for further reading 
E. B. Huey— The psychology and pedagogy of reading, New York, 
The Macmillan Co., 1908. Pp. 431. (See especially chs. xx. and xxi.) 

431. Give a general account of the hygienic problems connected 
with reading. What physical or mental disturbances may arise from 
unhygienic conditions in reading ? 

432. What is meant by the statement that reading is 'near work' 
for the mind as well as for the eye ? 

433. At what age does the average child learn to read ? Do you think 
this is too early ? Why ? 

434. If you believe that "children should not be taught even the 
elements of reading or writing during the first year of school," what 
form of school work would you substitute ? 

435. How many books are' read by the average child during his second 
school year ? 

436. State the factors that combine to determine the ease or difficulty 
of reading ? 

53 



54 

437. Why do some persons whose refraction is normal or perfectly 
corrected, experience great difficulty in reading in a poor light while 
others succeed in the same light ? 

438. Describe experiments upon the relative legibility of the small 
letters. What letters are least, what most legible ? What modifications 
have been proposed to remedy these difficulties ? 

439. What is meant by a 'point' in printer's terminology? Give 
the sizes of the most commonly used types, in the old and in the point 
system. 

440. Describe experiments for determining the proper size of type 
to be used in school text-books. What size of type should be used in 
text-books ? In books for beginners ? In books in foreign languages ? 

441. What form of type is most legible? What are 'ceriphs' and 
why are they used ? Who determines the forms of type that are used by 
printers ? 

442. How thick should the vertical strokes of letters be made ? How 
wide should the space between the strokes, e. g., in the letter 'm' be made ? 

443. Define the terms 'spacing,' 'approach,' 'leading.' State the 
requirements of hygienic printing with respect to these three factors. 

444. What should be the width of margin ? Why is a narrow margin 
undesirable ? 

445. Give some account of the movements executed by the eye in 
reading. How does the nature of these movements condition the length 
of line that is read with the least fatigue ? 

446. What are the requirements of paper for school text -books ? 
What faults are most common? Why do magazines use highly glazed 
paper ? 

447. Why are heavy text -books undesirable? 

448. Describe a simple comprehensive test for determining approx- 
imately the legibility of a school text -book. 

449. In general, do school text-books conform to the requirements 
of hygienic printing or not ? 



55 

450. Select three regular school text-books and test them with regard 
to length of line, size of type, approach, margin, leading, etc. 

451. What rules should be observed in printing maps and wall-charts 
to secure proper results from the standpoint of hygiene ? 

452. What should be the size of writing upon the blackboard if it 
is to be as legible to the pupils in the back seats as a book that is printed 
in conformity with hygienic standards ? 

453. What is the best material for the construction of blackboards 
and why? What other materials are often used? Why? With what 
disadvantages ? 

454. Why do some persons advocate the use of greenish-black in 
place of the ordinary dead-black boards ? 

455. What circumstances usually conspire to reduce the legibility 
of work placed on the blackboard ? 

456. What are the advantages and the disadvantages in the use of 
slates, of pencil and paper, of ink and paper ? 

457. State fully the conditions under which reading should not be 
carried on. 

458. How should the book be held with reference to the eyes ? 

459. How long may the eyes safely be used continuously in reading ? 

460. Why is reading during convalescence from illness particularly 
dangerous ? 

461. Why does hanging the head impair the eye-sight ? Why does 
reading in a reclining position ? In moving trains or cars ? In twilight ? 
How does tight neck-wear interfere with the use of the eyes in reading ? 
Why should the book never be held in full sunlight ? 

462. What are the most common faults in the conditions under which 
pupils study at home ? What steps can the teacher take to remedy 
these faults ? 

463. What diseases may be spread thru the careless and unhygienic 
use of school books ? What rules ought the teacher to establish govern- 
ing the use of reference books, like the dictionary, that are used in 
common by all the pupils ? 



J. Hygiene of Writing 



References 



Allport— 150-1. 
Bumham — 51-60. 
Cohn — XV. to xvii. 
Hope— 119-120. 

Kotelmann — 267-9. 
Porter — 216-7. 



Rowe— 67, 73. 
Risley— 414-6. 
Shaw — X. 
Snell— 41-35. 
Young— 195-202. 



Suggestions for further reading 

W. H. Bumham — The hygiene of drawing, in Ped. Sem., xiv., 1907, 
284-304. 

J. Jackson — Upright versus sloping writing, 5th ed. 

J. Jackson — The theory and practise of handwriting, 4th ed., 1898. 

D. P. Macmillan — Kept. Dept. Child-study and Pedagogic Investiga- 
tion, Chicago Public Schools, No. 4, 1902-3, pp. 11-16. 

464. What hygienic problems appear in connection with handwriting ? 

465. Which is the more important, — the details of letter-construction 
or the position of the pupil, — the writing or the writer ? 

466. Explain the position prescribed by the Spencerian system and 
show its hygienic defects. 

467. What is the 'intermedial-slant' system? The 'oblique-central 
position' ? Name and describe other systems of writing that have been 
adopted for school-work and state their alleged advantages, their merits 
and their defects. 

468. Explain fully the position prescribed by the vertical system: 
discuss the merits of the system, and state what objections have been, 
or may be, offered to its use. Is the system primarily a plan for reforming 
the letter-construction or reforming the position of the writer ? 

56 



57 

469. Is the vertical system necessarily slower than the slant system? 

470. Why should the paper be placed in the median plane ? 

471. Why should the paper be placed square with the edge of the 
desk? 

472. Why should the hand be placed with the little finger down 
rather than with the palm down ? 

473. What is the proper position for the pen in the vertical system ? 

474. How does the height of the desk and its distance from the chair 
affect the pupil's position and his writing ? 

475. Mention the principles to be observed in the teaching or writing 
during the first two years, — material to be used, length of practise, 
difficulties and ways of meeting them. 

476. Show how the teaching of handwriting is essentially a problem 
in habit-formation ? 

477. Describe the most common faults in the position assumed by 
pupils while doing written work in the school. 

478. Why does too long practise defeat its own end ? 

479. Ought ruled guide-lines to be used in all formal writing exer- 
cises ? In general school-work ? 

480. What is the advantage of conducting the first writing exercises 
on the blackboard ? Is there any disadvantage ? 

481. Should pen and ink be used during the first year's work? Just- 
ify your answer. 

482. What merits have soft pencils or crayons over the pen ? 

483. Is it advisable to teach children to write both with the right 
and with the left hand ? What arguments are advanced in favor of this 
procedure ? 

484. Is a large pen-holder better than a small one ? Why ? 

485. Thru how many grades ought formal exercises in penmanship to 
be continued ? Ought all pupils to continue the same length of time ? 



58 

486. Ought teachers to expect all pupils to produce a good copy of 
the model that is set before them ? If not, why not ? To what extent, 
in general, may individuality be permitted in formal writing exercises ? 

487. Ought speed as well as legibility to be taught and encouraged 
in school exercises in penmanship ? Give reasons for your answer. 

488. Why do older children tend to forsake the conventional copy- 
bock hand ? Is the appearance of such individual hands an argument for 
the earlier discontinuance of formal instruction in penmanship ? 



1904, 



K. Hearing 

References 

Barry— viii. Kotelmann— x. 

Burrage-133-4. Porter-xii. 

Elkington— viii. Shaw— ix. 

Hope— 155-8. Young-128-131. 

Suggestions for further reading 

B. R. Andrews— Auditory tests, in Amer. Jour. Psych., xv. 
14-56; xvi., 1905, 302-326. 

D. MacMillan— Some results of hearing-tests of Chicago school 
children, in Medicine, April, 1902. 

Kept. Com! on statistics defective sight and hearing of public school 
children, in Rept. U. S. Comsnr. Educ, ii., 1902, 2143-2155. 

C. E. Seashore— Hearing-ability and discriminative sensibility for pitch, 
in Univ. Iowa Studies in Psych., ii., 1899, 55-64. 

F. W. Smedley— Rept. Dept. Child-study, Chicago Public Schools-. 
No. 2, 1899-1900, 60-64. 

J. W. Smith— Defects of Vision and Hearing, Chicago, 1904. Pp.103.. 

489. Discuss the part played by the ear in school life, and show the 
effect of defective hearing in the pupil's work. 

490. Is it possible for defective hearing to exist in a pupil, unsuspected 
by him or his acquaintances ? Why ? 

491. In what ways does imperfect hearing impose a nervous strain. 
upon the pupil ? 

492. Is it true that the blind as a class are happy whereas the deaf as a. 
class are sad and unhappy, if not even morose? If so, what explana- 
tion can you offer ? 

59 



00 

493. Give statistics showing the prevalence of defective hearing in 
school children. 

494. Explain the structure of the ear, including the pinna, tragus, 
meatus, tympanum, ossicles. Eustachian tube, cochlea, basilar membrane, 
oval and round "windows, auditory nerve, etc. 

495. What defects are apt to appear in the external ear? In the 
middle ear ? In the internal ear ? 

496. "What forms of disturbance produce discharges of matter from 
the external ear? Explain the statement: "Every untreated discharge 
from the ear is a potential cause of death from brain disease." 

497. Comment on the saying: "Never put anything into your ear 
smaller than your elbow." What precautions need to be taken in remov- 
ing foreign bodies or accumulations of wax from the ear ? 

498. Does the ear-drum exist primarily to collect and transmit vibra- 
tions to the middle ear or to protect the middle ear from injury ? 

499. How may the ear-drum become ruptui-ed or perforated ? How 
does such an injury affect hearing? Under what conditions are such 
injuries repaired by nature ? 

500. Under what conditions are artificial ear-drums useful? Under 
w^hat conditions are they useless ? 

501. Why is boxing the ears a risky form of punishment ? 

502. How long is the Eustachian tube ? Where does it terminate ? 
Is it normally open or closed ? What is it for ? 

503. What is 'otitis media' ? 

504. Where are ear-aches usually located? Has the use of "ear- 
drops" or other patent remedies for ear-ache any rational sanction ? 

505. What common diseases are prone to produce deafness ? 

506. What is the cause and the nature of the pathological condition 
in most cases of partial deafness ? 

507. Why are some persons who are hard of hearing able to hear 
conversation quite well when on a railway train or in a noisy factory ? 



61 

508. Are all forms of deafness alleviated by the use of speaking tubes, 
trumpets, electrical and other similar devices? 

509. Give a full explanation of adenoids and their relation to hearing. 

510. What tests are employed for examination of auditory acuity? 

511. Describe a simple group-test of hearing. 

512. Describe fully the manner of conducting vocalized and whis- 
pered speech tests. How far does vocalized speech 'carry' ? How far 
does whispered speech ? What are the difficulties and what the advan- 
tages of these tests ? 

513. Describe the method of using the watch for testing hearing. 
What precautions must be observed ? How are the results to be treated ? 
What objections may be made against the test ? Is it possible to say 
just how far a watch should be heard ? 

514. What is the acoumeter, and how is it used for testing hearing? 
The audiometer? 

515. How are tuning-fork tests conducted, and for what purpose ? 

516. State the teacher's duties with regard to the hygiene of the ear, 
with respect to the conduct of tests, seating of pupils, noting external 
symptoms, enunciation and explanation of new words, notification of 
parents, etc. 

517. Give proofs that defective hearing affects the school standing 
of pupils. 

518. What occupations should be avoided by those who are hard of 
hearing? 



L. Hygiene of the mouth, throat, and nose 

References 

Barry— ix., 86-9, 178-180. Porter— vii. _ .? 

Elkington— 127. Shaw— 250-1. \ 

Kotelmann— xi., 285-290. Young— 131-2. ^ 
Hope — xi. 

Suggestions for further reading 

W. H. Bumham — The hygiene of the teeth, in Ped. Sem., xiii., 1906, 
293-306 (gives 18 further references). 

W. H. Bumham — The hygiene of the nose, in Ped. Sem., xiv., 1907, 
155-169 (gives 19 further references). 

E. A. Crockett — Some diseases of the nose and throat of interest to 
teachers, in Proc. Natl. Educ. Assocn., 1903, 1028-1031. 

C. E. Grayson — The diseases of the nose, throat, and ear, Philadelphia, 
2d ed., 1906. Pp. 532. 

H. Hagelin — Adenoids and modern language teaching, in Modern Lan- 
guage Teaching, iv.. No. 1, 16-19, and No. 2, 38-44. 

Jessen — An open letter from Dr. Jessen, Strassburg, Germany, in 
School Hyg., i., June, 1908, 8-9, (Teeth). 

G. E. Johnson — The condition of the teeth of children in public 
schools, in Ped. Sem., viii., March, 1901, 45-58. 

G. M. Phelps — Care of children's teeth, in Child Study Mo., iv., Oct., 
1898, 225-233. 

W. Wingrave — Adenoids (Medical monograph series, No. 9), London, 
1904. Pp. 128. 

519. Give a general description of the respiratory passages, locating 

the pharynx, naso-pharynx, esophagus, trachea, Eustachian tubes, 

tongue, uvula, septum, turbinate bones, and other structures. 

62 



63 

520. What is the nature of the lining of these passages, and what is 
its normal condition ? 

521. Ought teachers to give instruction in the art of correct breath- 
ing? 

(a) Nose and throat 

522. Comment on the statement: "The function of the nose is that 
of practical hygienist." 

523. In what way does the nose filter the air that passes thru it ? 

524. In what way does it moisten incoming air ? 

525. In what way does it warm incoming air ? 

526. What is the significance of the rich blood supply in the turbinate 
bones ? 

527. Explain the relation of the lymph system to the mucous mem- 
brane of the naso-pharynx and the bearing of this relation upon bacter- 
ial infection. 

528. Give all the reasons you can for breathing thru the nose rather 
than thru the mouth. 

529. In what way does the nose "stand guard" over the respiratory 
and digestive tracts ? 

530. What circumstances may tend to cause the child to breathe thru 
his mouth ? 

531. What are the proper measures to be taken for the removal of 
foreign bodies from the nose ? 

532. How can nose-bleeding be stopped ? 

533. How do children 'catch cold' ? What are the characteristic 
symptoms and what the injurious effects of nose-colds ? 

534. What rules can you give to prevent children from catching 
colds ? Are colds 'catching' ? Do they always spring from getting 
chilled? 



64 

535. "What are the probable causes at work in the case of children 
that suffer from very frequent and persistent colds ? 

536. What are the common causes for the appearance of sore-throat ? 

537. "Why are some children more disposed to sore-throat than others .? 

538. Should the pupil that complains of sore-throat be excluded 
from school ? Always ? "Why ? 

539. W"'hat serious diseases may be presaged by sore-throat ? 

540. "Why should the teacher give attention to coughs- in pupils ? 
"What does the usual cough indicate ? "What disease may be indicated by 
a spasmodic cough? A croupy cough? A painful cough? A long- 
continued cough ? 

(b) Adenoids 

541. Name four terms that are used interchangeably with adenoids. • 

542. "What is the general nature of the condition known as adenoids ? 

543. "V\^hat is meant by the statement that 'adenoids' is a "modern 
disease" ? 

544. "What are the conditions that seem to cause or favor the appear- 
ance or development of adenoids ? Is there any single essential cause ? 

545. Explain the signs or symptoms that are characteristic of ade- 
noids. What facial appearances are characteristic? What respiratory 
disturbances ? What defects in speech ? What reflex nervous disorders ? 
What digestive troubles ? What defects in hearing ? What circulatory 
changes ? What general or systemic effects ? 

546. In what way do adenoids interfere with physical growth, both of 
the respiratory apparatus and skull-parts locally and of the body as a 
whole ? 

547. How does hearing become affected by the presence of adenoids ? 

548. What is meant by 'aprosexia nasalis' ? Describe a typical case. 
What is the probable relation between adenoids and this type of weak 
attention ? 



65 

549. How prevalent are adenoids in school children? ' How many 
children are there in the kindergartens and grade schools of the United 
States that are presumably suffering from the handicap of adenoids ? 

550. Are adenoids more common among the poorer classes ? Why ? 

551. What are the methods by which the presence of adenoids may 
be diagnosed ? Which of these methods, if any, may the school teacher 
employ? 

552. How are adenoids treated ? During what ages is an operation 
most desirable ? 

553. What are the physical and mental effects of successful treatment ? 

(c) The voice 

554. Explain briefly the situation, construction, and operation of the 
vocal cords and other structures concerned in the production of the voice. 

555. When does the normal child begin to talk ? If a child does not 
talk at two years, does this indicate probable defect ? Of what sort ? 

556. What are the most common defects in the speech of school 
children ? How do they arise ? How could they be prevented ? 

557. Why is it so important to supply the child with correct models 
of speech and enunciation in early childhood? Is the use of 'baby talk' 
likely to be harmful ? 

558. What is the difference between stuttering and stammering ? 

559. What is the real nature of the defect known as stuttering ? 

560. What are the possible 'central' and the possible 'peripheral' 
causes of stuttering ? 

561. Ought a stuttering child to be excluded from school? Give 
reasons for your answer. 

562. What proportion of stutterers acquire the habit imitatively ? 

563. Is stuttering acquired as a rule before, or during school life ? 

564. Give some figures concerning the prevalence of stuttering. 

565. What occupations are naturally closed to the stutterer? 



66 

566. What are the methods employed in curing stuttering ? What 
percentage are cured ? When is an operation advisable ? 

567. If a stuttering child is kept in school, what rules should guide 
the teacher in her dealings with him ? 

568. Explain the nature and the eflEect on speech of hare-lip, cleft- 
palate, and tongue-tie. How ought these defects to be treated ? When, 
and why ? 

569. What is the duty of the teacher with respect to pupils wh«)se 
speech is jerky, hurried, mumbled, thick, drawling, lisping, etc. ? What 
are the usual reasons for the appearance of these faults ? 

570. State six rules that should be observed in order to secure hy- 
gienic use of the voice in singing. Which is the most important ? 

571. What special precautions should be taken by boys in the use of 
the voice at the age of puberty, and why ? 

572. How early do you think instruction in singing should begin ? 

(d) The teeth 

573. Give some statistics concerning the prevalence of defective 
teeth in school children. Are defective teeth commoner among civilized 
or primitive peoples ? In younger or older children ? 

574. Explain why defective teeth may render school children irritable 
and uneasy. Why they may impair digestion? Why they may cause 
earache, headache, heart trouble, nervous disorders, and faulty nutrition ? 

575. Does the presence of so many decayed teeth affect the purity 
of the schoolroom air ? 

576. What are the general and predisposing causes of defective tteth ? 
Which is more apt to cause decay, the use of candy and other sweets or 
the use of starchy foods ? 

577. How do bacteria cause the decay of the teeth ? 

578. Does school life favor the preservation or the decay of teeth ? 
In what way ? 



67 

579. Why is absolute cleanliness the essential prophylactic measure 
in the prevention of caries ? 

580. What may the school teacher do to prevent the decay of the 
teeth of school children? Has the teacher any direct responsibility or 
obligation in this matter ? 

581. What two reasons make it imperative that the first or temporary 
teeth should receive the best possible care ? 

582. Why do the so-called six-year molars demand special care and 
attention ? 

583. Give some account of the establishment of school dental clinics. 
What reasons have led to their establishment ? In what places ? What 
objections have been urged against them? 

584. Do you think that dental inspection ought to be prescribed in 
all American schools ? How might this be best arranged ? 

585. Cervantes remarked that "a tooth is more valuable than a 
diamond," and a recent writer similarly says: "Every permanent tooth 
saved is better than a hundred dollars in the savings bank." Then why 
do over 95 per cent, of school children suffer from decayed teeth ? 

Note: Since this Bulletin was compiled there has appeared W. H. 
Allen's Civics and Health, Boston, 1909, — a book that deserves a place 
in our references, especially in Sections L. M. and N. 



M. School diseases and accidents 

References 

Barry — x., xi., xvi. Lincoln — xiv. 

Burnham — 65-6. Newsholme — xviii., xix. 

Elkington— vii., ix., 182-8. Porter— xiii., 184-7, 324-7, etc. 

Hope — v., vi., vii., 79-82. Shaw — xii. 

Kotelmann— xii., xiii., 228-238. Young— 98-100, 119-128, 132-142. 

Suggestions for fttrther reading 

C. F. Folsom — The relation of our public school to the disorders of the 
nervous system. Lecture 6 (pp. 161-193), in Six Lectures upon School 
Hygiene, Boston, 1885. 

A. Jacobi — The prevention of tuberculosis in school children, in 
Teachers College Record, vi., No. 5, March, 1905, 14-29. 

W. H. Manwaring — The newer hygiene, in Pop. Sci. Mo., Ixxxi., July, 
1907, 66-8. 

Mass. Brd. Educ. — Medical inspection: suggestions to teachers and 
school physicians, Boston, 1907. Pp. 29. Also, Suggestions to teachers 
regarding tuberculosis and its prevention, Boston, 1908. Pp. 23. 

G. B. Shattuck — Epidemics and disinfection. Lecture 4 (pp. 91-112), 
in Six Lectures upon School Hygiene, Boston, 1885. 

(a) Introductory 

586. What is the difference between a contagious and an infectious 
disease ? 

587. Name four eruptive diseases. 

588. When is a disease sporadic ? When epidemic ? 

589. Define the terms: period of incubation, period of invasion, 

period of infection. 

68 



69 

590. What ought school children to be taught with regard to conta- 
gious and infectious diseases? In what grades could this instruction 
be begun ? Why ought teachers to enlist pupils in the 'anti-spitting' 
crusade ? 

591. Why ought children to be taught something of the nature of 
germ infection, of the use of antitoxins, vaccination, and of the necessity 
and reasonableness of quarantine regulations ? 

592. Give some account of the nature of bodily resistance to bacter- 
ial infection. What is meant by antitoxin resistance ? By resistance 
by antisepsis? By resistance by phagocytosis? Why ought school 
children to be taught something of the nature of bodily resistance ? 

593. What instruction ought school children to have with regard to 
the care of cuts, wounds, bruises, etc. ? 

(6) Infectious diseases 

594. Name the chief school diseases. 

595. Prepare a table that shall indicate (a) the cause, (6) the symp- 
toms, (c) the period of incubation, {d) the period of invasion, {e) the 
period of infection, (/) the length of quarantine, {g) the complications to 
be feared, and ih) the teacher's duties in the following diseases: diphtheria, 
whooping cough, measles, scarlet fever, chicken-pox, omall-pox, mumps. 

596. Arrange these diseases (a) in the order of their prevalence, (6) 
in the order of their danger, generally speaking. 

597. Which of these diseases are contagious ? Which infectious ? 

598. Why is it imperative that teachers should be conversant ^^ith 
the characteristic symptoms of infectious diseases ? 

599. What responsibility has the teacher with regard to the enforce- 
ment of quarantine regulations ? 

600. Give some account of the modern treatment of diphtheria? 
What was the death-rate before the use of antitoxin ? What is the pres- 
ent death-rate ? 

601. Give evidence to show the great danger of a day's delay in the 
treatment of diphtheria. 



70 

602. School children sometimes have diphtheria in so mild a form 
as to be able to continue at school. Do such cases constitute a source of 
danger? Why? How can this danger be avoided ? 

603. Show the effect of compulsory vaccination upon the prevalence 
of small-pox. What are the duties of teachers and school boards with 
respect to vaccination ? Ought parents who do not admit the im- 
perativeness of vaccination to be allowed to send their children to school 
un vaccinated ? 

604. Why is malaria now known as 'mosquito-fever' ? How is it 
spread ? How may it be avoided ? How could it be eliminated ? Is 
there any warrant for the belief that malaria is 'caught' by exposure to 
damp night air in marshy regions ? 

605. Is the view that whooping-cough is never dangerous a correct 
view ? At what ages is this disease most dangerous ? How long must 
the pupil who has whooping-cough be excluded from school ? 

606. Under what conditions is measles likely to be dangerous ? At 
what time of the year is this disease most prevalent ? Is it necessary 
to observe and enforce strict quarantine regulations in cases of measles ? 

607. Is there any warrant for the practise of some parents in ex- 
posing their children deliberately to whooping-cough and measles ? 

608. Under what conditions may mumps be dangerous ? 

609. Give some account of the origin, symptoms, prevalence, and 
outcome of consumption and other forms of tuberculosis. How many 
persons die yearly of tuberculosis ? Describe the modern crusade against 
this disease. Why is it called the "great white plague" ? 

610. What are the circumstances that favor the appearance and devel- 
opment of consumption? How are the germs of the disease carried 
from the sick to the well ? 

611. What conditions should be avoided to safeguard one's self 
against consumption ? 

612. What precautions must a consumptive take to render it safe for 
other persons to live with him ? 



71 

613. Name five important features in the modern treatment of con- 
sumption. 

614. Discuss the relation of the pubHc school system to the problem 
of consumption. What instruction should be given to school children 
concerning the nature, prevalence, danger, and methods of treatment of 
this disease ? Ought consumptive children to be excluded from the public 
schools ? Ought school authorities to establish special outdoor classes 
for consumptives ? Where has this experiment been tried ? 

615. What are the most common skin and parasitic diseases among 
school children ? Which of them demand exclusion from school ? 

616. What are the causes, symptoms, proper treatment, precautions, 
and duties to be observed by the teacher in scabies (the itch), ringworm, 
pediculosis (head lice) ? 

617. Is influenza or 'grip' an infectious disease ? Ought pupils who 
exhibit 'grippy' symptoms to be excluded from school ? 

618. What diseases or physical disturbances may be indicated by the 
following symptoms ? 



(1) 


Emaciation 


(2) 


Pallor 


'(3) 


Puffiness of face 


(4) 


Shortness of breath 


(5) 


Swellings of the neck 


(6) 


Mouth breathing 


(7) 


General lassitude 


(8) 


Flushing of the face 


(9) 


Skin eruptions 


(10) 


Running eyes and^nose cold 


(11) 


Irritating nasal discharge 


(12) 


Sore throat 


(13) 


Coughs 


(14) 


Vomiting 


(15) 


Headache 


(16) 


Frequent requests to leave the^room 



72 

(17) Inability to concentrate attention 

(18) Jerky, twitching movements 

(19) Fainting 

(20) Sudden or persistent lameness 

(21) Excessive fear or bashfulness 

(22) Pains in the joints or bones 

(c) Non-infectious diseases 

619. What is meant by scoliosis ? How is it caused ? How may it 
be prevented ? How should it be treated ? 

620. What are the causes, symptoms, and methods of treatment in 
chorea or St. Vitus dance ? Ought the choreic child to pursue regular 
school work ? 

621. What are the causes, symptoms, and methods of treatment in 
neurasthenia ? Ought the neurasthenic child to pursue regular school 
work? 

622. What are the causes and symptoms of epilepsy? What is the 
distinction between 'petit mal' and 'grand mal' ? What is meant by 
Jacksonian, focal, and psychic epilepsy? How is the disease treated? 
Ought an epileptic child to be removed from the public schools ? 

623. What are the most common causes and most characteristic 
symptoms of feeble-mindedness ? How may this condition be distin- 
guished from backwardness due to physical defect, poor health, and 
similar handicaps ? How many children are sufficiently deficient to 
demand special educational treatment ? How is such treatment to be 
secured ? Why should the feeble-minded child be removed from the 
regular grade classes ? 

(d) Accidents 

624. Ought the teacher to learn how to treat the commoner forms of 
accident and illness ? 

625. Give instances showing that "a little knowledge " of medicine is 
a doubly "dangerous thing." 



73 

626. Should the teacher ever administer drugs or medicines ? 

627. Many of the better modern school-buildings contain an accident 
room. What should be the equipment of this room? What articles 
are needed and for what purpose ? 

628. What is the difference between a simple and a compound frac- 
ture ? Describe the method of caring for a fracture before the physician 
arrives: what must be done, and what must not be done? How may 
temporary splints be made, and what is their purpose ? 

629. How should a broken collar-bone be temporarily treated ? 

630. What is meant by a 'green-stick fracture' and how does it differ 
from an ordinary fracture? Should the teacher attempt to straighten 
it? 

631. What is a dislocation and how does it differ from a fracture? 
What should the teacher do to remedy a dislocation ? 

632. What is a sprain and how does it differ from a dislocation? 
What is the proper course of treatment ? What serious after-effects are, 
to be feared ? 

633. How should bruises and contusions be treated to allay pain 
and minimize swelling and discoloration ? 

634. What are the characteristic symptoms of arterial hemorrhage ? 
Of venous hemorrhage ? What should be done to check the bleeding 
of a cut artery? Ot a cut vein? What is the best treatment for small 
cuts ? Why should stimulants not be given in a case of serious bleeding ? 

635. What solutions should be used in cleansing and binding up a 
cut? 

636. What causes may produce fainting ? What measures should be 
taken to restore consciousness ? 

637. What should the teacher do to alleviate serious choking or 
to prevent death from suffocation ? 

638. Give full directions for the resuscitation of the apparently 
drowned. What is 'Sylvester's method' ? What things must be done ? 
What particularly avoided? At what rate should the movements o£ 



74 

artificial respiration be made ? How long ought the treatment to con- 
tinue if there are no signs of recovery? Does cessation of the wrist 
pulse indicate death ? 

639. What is the proper treatment for sunstroke or heat-prostration ? 

640. What is the proper treatment for frost-bites ? 

641. How should snake-bites and dog-bites be treated? 

642. What should the teacher do if a pupil is seized with a convulsive 
or epileptic fit ? Ought hysterical fits to be similarly treated ? How can 
you distinguish these two types of fits ? 

643. How should small burns be treated ? Bad burns ? Should the 
blisters be opened ? 

644. What should be done if a child's clothing catches fire? 



N. Medical inspection 

References 

Barry — ^xi. Cohn — xxii. 

Porter — xxii. 

• Suggestions for further reading 

W. H. Burnham — Health inspection in the schools, in Ped. Sena., vii., 
April, 1900, 70-94. 

T. Darlington — Precautions used by the New York City Department of 
Health to prevent the spread of contagious diseases in the schools of the 
city, in the Medical News, Jan. 21, 1905. 

S. G. Dixon — The medical inspection of schools, in School Board 
Journal, xxxiv., March, 1907, 6 ff. 

L, H. Gulick and L. P, Ayers — Medical inspection of schools, New York 
Charities Publication Committee, 1908. Pp. 161. (Appendix I is a 
reprint of "Suggestions to teachers and school physician? regarding 
medical inspection," issued by the Mass. Brd. of Educ, 1907.) 

T. F, Harrington — Medical inspection in public schools as contribut- 
ing to health and efficiency, in Proc. Dept. Supt., Nat. Ed. Assoc, 
1908, 200-210. 

J. Lee and Margaret Curtis — Medical inspection in the public schools 
(Leaflets Mass. Civic League, No. 7, 1906). Pp. 42. (Price 5 cts: 
address 3 Joy St., Boston, Mass.) 

W. L. MacKenzie — Medical inspection of school children, Glasgow and 
Edinburgh., 1904. Pp. 476. 

G. H. Martin — School hygiene in Massachusetts, reprints from the 
71st and 72d Rept. Mass. Brd. Educ, Boston, 1908 and 1909. Pp. 46 
and 27. 

H. W. Zirkle — Medical inspection of schools (Investigations of the 

75 



76 

Dept. of Psych, and Educ, Univ. of Colorado), Boulder, Col., June, 
1902. Pp. 66. (With a bibliography of 140 titles.) 

U. S. Comsnr. Educ. Reports, (a) Medical inspection of schools, 
1897-8, ii., 1489-1511, (b) Medical inspection of schools in Germany, 
lg99_1900, 825-8, (c) Medical inspection of schools abroad, 1902, i., 
509-526, (d) Medical inspection of school children, 1906, i., 327, (e) 
School hygiene, 1908, i., 94-5. 

(Note: The greater part of the literature upon medical inspection 
is scattered in various medical journals, reports of boards of health, 
boards of education, special committees, etc. To supplement the limited 
references above given, readers may consult the Bulletin of the Amer. 
Acad, of Med., vol. vi., April, 1905, No. 17, which lists most of the arti- 
cles in medical journals, and also the extended, tho not well digested, 
bibliography in Gulick and Ayres, pp. 204-221.) 

645. What are the general aims of medical inspection? Is the pre- 
vention of contagious diseases or the examination of individual children 
for non-contagious diseases and defects the more important aim in the 
work? 

646. What arguments are advanced for and against medical inspec- 
tion ? Is there any justification for the plea that such inspection tres- 
passes on personal rights and liberty ? 

647. Give some account of the development of medical inspection. 
Where and when was it first practised ? In what countries has it had its 
most extensive development ? 

648. What states of the Union make legal provision for medical in- 
spection? What, in general, is the nature of this provision in Massa- 
chusetts ? In other states ? 

649. What is the difference in the purpose, nature, and manner of 
conducting (a) rapid group inspection, (6) examination of individual 
children selected by the teacher, and {c) systematic individual examin- 
ation of all children ? 

650. Is it necessary to give the school teacher special instruction 



77 

in order to enable him to co-operate successfully with the medical in- 
spector in his work? What should be the nature of this instruction, 
and who should give it ? 

651. How is inspection for infectious diseases undertaken? How 
frequently ought this inspection to be made ? Need all children be ex- 
amined, or only suspicious cases ? 

652. What symptoms in pupils warrant the teacher in referring them 
to the inspector for more careful examination ? 

653. Give some account of the practical results achieved by school 
inspection in reducing the prevalence and checking the spread of infec- 
tious diseases. 

654. When a child is excluded by the inspector for probable infectious 
disease, what further steps should be taken by the school or other author- 
ities to 'follow up' the case ? 

655. Name twelve diseases, the presence of which would warrant the 
inspector in excluding their possessor from, school. 

656. What opinions are expressed as to the value of school nurses ? 

657. Give some account of the work of nurses in the public schools 
at New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. What duties do they perform, 
and with what results ? 

658. As a rule, two or three nurses can be secured for the same time 
and at the same price as one physician: which investment yields the 
larger returns ? 

659. Under what circumstances and for what purposes does the school 
nurse make visits to the homes of pupils ? 

660. Aside from the inspection for infectious diseases, what is the na- 
ture and scope of the physical e xamination undertaken by medical in- 
spectors ? How much time is devoted to the general physical examin- 
ation of each child ? 

661. What arguments are advanced for and against the principle that 
every school system should prescribe systematic, periodic physical 
examination of every pupil ? Does this examination demand a different 



78 

sanction from the one that supports the doctrine of inspection against 
infectious diseases ? 

662. Have the Board of Health or the Board of Education any legal 
right, or any moral obligation, to compel or induce parents to attend to 
the physical defects of their children? Justify your answer. 

663. If the authorities have such right or obligation are they there- 
fore bound to furnish free eye-glasses, dental service, ear-clinics, medi- 
cine, etc., to those who cannot afford to pay for these things ? 

664. What steps are, or should be, taken to 'follow up' the physical 
examination of each pupil? How are parents notified of the results of 
the examination? What measures may be taken to induce parents to 
consult dentists, physicians, oculists and other professional men for the 
removal of defects that are reported ? As a rule, how many parents give 
heed to the cards of warning ? 

665. Give statistics to show the results of the physical examinations 
of school children. What percentage of pupils suffer from some defect 
that demands medical or surgical attention and that presumably 
handicaps their school work ? 

666. Ought the work of examination to be conducted in the regular 
classroom ? 

667. Show clearly the relation of the prevalence of physical defect 
to the age of the pupils. Why are more defects found in the younger 
children? How does this affect the relation between frequency of de- 
fect and class standing or school grade ? (Gulick and Ayres, xii.) 

668. Ought medical inspectors also to examine and report upon the 
sanitary and hygienic condition of the schoolhouse and its equipment, 
e. g., illumination, ventilation, desks, school program, etc., or does this 
work demand another expert ? 

669. What is the average salary paid to medical inspectors in this 
country ? How many hours do they work per day ? What is the average 
cost per pupil for a year's medical inspection ? What salaries are paid in 
England and Germany? 



79 

670. What is the average salary paid to nurses ? How long do they 
work ? 

671. How may small towns and villages secure medical inspection 
at reasonable cost ? 

672. Ought the medical inspection of school children to be under- 
taken under the auspices and control of the board of health or of the 
board of education ? Why ? Which board is logically the more re- 
sponsible for inspection against infectious diseases ? Which for inspec- 
tion for non-infectious diseases or physical defects ? Ought the admin- 
istration of inspection to be divided between the two authorities ? 

673. What are the principal things that delay or prevent the insti- 
tution of medical inspection in American schools ? How may interested 
parties best seek to secure the institution of such inspection ? 



0. Sex Growth. Hygiene. Fatigue and Overpressure. Rest-pauses and 
the School Program. Sleep. Exercise. Diet and clothing 

References 

Barry — xii., xiii.. xiv. Marble — 57-61. 

Bumham — 13-17, 60-51 . Newsholme — ix. to xiii. 

Cohn— XX. Porter— 123-138, 175-182, 321-4. 

Elkington— X., xi. Risley— 379, 382. 

Hope — iv., xii., xiii., xiv. Shaw — viii., xi. 

Kotelmann — vii., viii. Snell — 55-60. 

Lincoln— ii. to vi. Young— 142-8, 151-180. 

Suggestions for further reading 

E. H. Clarke — Sex in Education, or a Fair Chance for Girls, Boston, 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1873, 5th ed., 1884. Pp. 181. 

A. C. Ellis and Maud Shipe — A study of the accuracy of the present 
methods of testing fatigue, in Amer. Jour. Psych., xiv., 1903, 496-509. 

L. H. Gulick— The Efficient Life, New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 
1907. Pp. 195. 

G. S. Hall — Youth: its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene, New York, 
D. Appleton & Co., 1907. Pp. 366, especially chs. v., vi., xi. 

G. S. Hall — Adolescence, New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1904. See 
especially vol. ii., ch. xvii. 

G. S. Hall — The needs and methods of educating young people in the 
hygiene of sex, in Ped. Sem., xv., March. 1908, 82-91. 

C. R. Henderson — Education with reference to sex: 8th year-book of 
the Nat. Soc. Sci. Study Educ, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1909. (See also 
in Part ii., Helen C. Putnam — Sex instruction in high schools, pp. 76-82.) 

I C. G. Kerley — The nutrition of school children, in Teachers College 
Record, vi., No. 2, March, 1905, 43-7 

80 



81 

Helen Kinne — School luncheons, do., 48-64. 

F. S. Lee— Fatigue, in the Harvey Lectures, Phil., 1906, 169-194: 
also in Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc, xlvi., 1906, 1491: and in Studies in 
Physiology, Columbia University. 

S. W. Mitchell — Wear and Tear, or Hints for the Overworked, 5th ed., 
Philadelphia, 1887. Pp. 76. 

A. Mosso — Fatigue (Eng. trans.) New York, 1904. Pp. 334. 

Rept. U. S. Comsnr. Educ. — Mental fatigue in school. Two articles, 
1894-5, i., 449-460. 1895-6, ii., 1175-1198. 

E. L. Thorndike— Mental fatigue, in Psych. Rev., vii., 1900, 466- 
482. 547-579. 

G. M. Whipple — The distributic n of the daily time of Cornell students, 
in Pop. Sci. Mo., Ixvii., Oct., 1905, 538-554. 

T>eaflets upon sex hygiene will be mailed upon the request of respon- 
sible persons, for judicious distribution, by the Committee on Sex Hy- 
giene, 4 Joy St., Boston, Mass. 

(a) Growth 

674. Give an account of the growth of school children in height and 
weight, with special reference to the sex differences at puberty. 

675. What influences determine ultimate height and weight? 
What conditions interfere most seriously with normal physical growth ? 
How can these conditions be obviated ? 

'676. What are the characteristic physical and mental signs of pre- 
cocity ? Of retardation ? 

677. What rules should be observed in arranging the physical regimen 
and school work of the precocious child ? Of the retarded child ? 

678. If a child has the average height, weight, and general mental 
characteristics of his age, does it follow necessarily that he is not suffering 
from retardation ? * 

679. If a child is large for his age and enjoying good health, can he 
be expected to undertake more school work than the average child ? 



82 



{b) Sex hygiene 

680. Give some account of the special dangers that may affect the 
health and physical development of adolescent boys and of adolescent 
girls. 

681. Has the public school a responsibility in the battle against the 
so-called 'social' (venereal) diseases ? 

682. Show the urgent necessity for the instruction of all adolescent 
boys and girls in the fundamental principles of sex hygiene. Is such 
instruction commonly given by parents? Why not? At what age 
should this instruction be given ? 

683. It has been proposed to give sex instruction in public schools 
(a) by actual anatomical preparations, models, charts, etc., (6) by a series 
of talks during the years 8 to 10 or before the sex instinct matures, (c) 
by special talks to high-school pupils by physicians, before either sex 
separately, (d) by the distribution of pamphlets, books, and other 
"literature of warning," (e) by indirect, symbolic, or quasi mystical 
reference to sex, in connection with the study of botany and zoology. 
Which of these methods is to be preferred, and why ? Is there any better 
way ? 

(c) Fatigue and overpressure 

684. What is the physiological basis of fatigue ? 

685. Give a brief statement of the methods and results of the study 
of fatigue in the physiological and psychological laboratory. 

686. Is there any fundamental difference between 'mental fatigue' 
and 'physical fatigue' ? If so, what ? 

687. Does strenuous mental activity consume more, or less energy 
than strenuous physical activity ? 

688. What are the most characteristic signs of fatigue ? 

689. What is the difference, if any, between fatigue and weariness? 
Between fatigue and overwork ? Between fatigue and exhaustion ? 



83 



690. Does fatigue mean disinclination to work or real inability to 
work ? How can the teacher tell which condition is present ? 

691. Does the amount of fatigue felt correspond directly with the 
extent or duration of work performed ? If not, why not ? 

692. Give evidences of. age, of sex, and of individual differences in 
susceptibility to fatigue. 

693. The following factors have been suggested as possible sources of 
fatigue symptoms in school children. Arrange them in the order of their 
prevalence. 

i 

(1) Inadequate ventilation 

(2) Inadequate illumination 

(3) Insufficient play or exercise 

(4) Too long or difficult lessons 

(5) Improperly fitted desks 

(6) Nervous constitution 

(7) Recent or oncoming illness 

(8) Hook-worm disease 

(9) Adenoids 

(10) Poor home conditions 

(11) Insufficient sleep 

(12) Too much home-study 

(13) Too much physical work 

(14) Social dissipation 

(15) Too rapid growth 

(16) Deliberate pretense ' 

694. Which of these causes could, and should be removed by the 
teacher ? Are there any other important causes of school fatigue ? 

695. What are the common signs of overwork or overpressure ? 

696. Can you substantiate the statement that 'overpressure' is 
generally due to the neglect of common rules of hygiene ?" 

697. What views were expressed by E. H. Clarke in his "Sex in Educa- 
tion" with regard to overpressure in high-school girls ? What comments 
can you make on these views ? 



84 

698. Do high -school girls suffer oftener from too much school work 
or from unhygienic arrangement of their life outside of the school ? 

699. Is a child that enjoys good sleep and digestion likely to be 
swamped by the pressure of school work ? 

700. To what extent are 'grades,' final examinations and other com- 
petitive features of modern education responsible for overpressure ? 
How could these conditions be obviated ? 

(d) Rest-pauses and program arrangements 

701. In what sense does 'change afford rest'? Does the study of 
•one subject give rest from another ? In what way ? 

702. Give an account of the factors, such as practise, fatigue, warm- 
ing-up, spurting, etc., that determine the 'curve of efficiency.' 

703. If a rest-pause is introduced into an hour's stretch of work, 
what advantages appear ? What disadvantages ? 

704. What general rules can you give as to the best time and duration 
•of rest-pauses in undertaking (a) short, easy work, (6) long, easy work, 
(c) short, difficult work, (d) long, difficult work? 

705. Does the average school program allow too much or too little 
time for rest-pauses? For outdoor recesses? How often should rest- 
pauses be introduced in a morning session of a primary and of a grammar 
•school, and what should be the character of these pauses ? Is there any 
-excuse for continuing a session without any recess? 

706. What arguments can be advanced in favor of a single session as 
opposed to double sessions ? What against it ? 

707. What is the physical and mental value of the long summer vaca- 
tion ? Is so long a rest-pause needed to get the best results in the educa- 
tion of children ? 

708. "Unless in most vigorous health the school teacher should not 
teach in Sunday school." Why not ? 

709. Are there any distinct differences in the ability of children to do 
school work at different hours of the day ? If so, at what hours is the 
best work usually done ? The poorest work ? 



85 

710. Give some account of the methods by which the 'diurnal curve 
of efficiency' has been determined. Is this curve practically the same for 
all children ? 

711. People are sometimes referred to as 'morning workers,' 'evening, 
workers,' etc. Are these distinctions valid? Do they result from mere 
habit, i. e., could any person learn to do first -class work at any hour of the 
day? 

712. It is commonly stated that "the real acquisitive work should 
be all carried out in the morning." Is this correct, and if so, why? 
What kind of school work should be placed, then, in the afternoon ? 

713. Experiments indicate that school children, if asked to do their 
utmost, can perform just as many and just as difficult problems in arith- 
metic at three in the afternoon as at nine in the morning. Can it be in- 
ferred from this that arithmetic might just as well be placed at the end 
of the afternoon session ? 

714. What is meant by the 'half-time' system in education? What 
advantages are claimed for it ? 

715. How many minutes can the kindergarten child be properly ex- 
pected to work continuously on a given piece of work? A primary- 
grade child ? A grammar-grade child ? A high-school pupil ? Are the 
customary periods too long ? What is the disadvantage in making them 
very short ? 

716. How long, as a rule, does it take a class to settle down to hard 
work at a new lesson or task ? Could the teacher reduce this time ? 

717. Which arrangement would yield the higher net efficiency :~ 
40 minutes work of the ordinary type and no formal rest-pause, or 30 
minutes work at the highest possible pressure followed by 10 minutes of 
rest ? 

718. Arrange the studies of the grammar grades in the order of their 
fatigue-producing effects?. Which is the more determinative of the 
fatigue produced by a study, — its subject-matter or the method in which_ 
it is presented and studied ? 

719. Are singing and drawing restful or fatiguing school exercises ? 



86 

720. How early ought the child to be sent to school ? Many educators 
say that eight or ten years is early enough. What are the possible ad- 
vantages and the possible disadvantages of such delay ? 

721. According to Elkington: "Home-work is quite inadmissible 
before twelve years of age, and should never exceed one hour daily at 
ages from twelve to fourteen." Do you agree with this conclusion? 
Does the conclusion concur with the practise of the average school ? 

722. Some parents seemingly want their children to do 'home-work' as 
evidence of their educational progress. What kind of work could be 
assigned in such cases ? 

723. Discuss the fatigue -effects of examinations. How often may 
examinations be safely instituted in elementary grades ? In high schools ? 
How long ought they to last ? Is it better to group all the examinations 
into a 'block,' or scatter them at different times thru the term's work ? 

{e) Sleep 

724. What is the nature of sleep, i. e., what are the physiological 
processes that accompany the reduction or elimination of conscious 
activity in sleep ? 

725. What precautions should be taken to secure the maximal benefit 
from sleep ? 

726. How much sleep is required by the average school child ? Is 
the proverbial 'eight hours of sleep' adequate to his needs ? 

727. What are the signs of insufficient sleep ? 

728. Prepare a table to indicate the ideal appointment of daily 
time to sleep, meals, study, play, dressing, and miscellaneous activities 
for children of each age from 4 to 14 years. Compare your table with 
that given by Elkington, p. 140. 

729. Can a child successfully eliminate his time for play and add it to 
his time for study, if he will also increase his time for sleep, i. e., is sleep 
a full equivalent for outdoor exercise as a recuperative measure ? 

730. Is sleep before midnight any more valuable for the child than 



87 

sleep after midnight? In what way? Is it better for a child to sleep 
from eight till six than from nine to seven ? Why ? 

731. Do boys and girls at the age of puberty need special super- 
vision of their daily program of sleep, work, and exercise ? If so, why, 
and in what way ? 

(f) Exercise 

732. What is the chief use of exercise? What are the effects of 
moderate exercise upon the respiration ? Upon circulation ? Upon the 
muscles ? 

733. Since all exercise consumes energy, how is it possible to get 
refreshment from brain fatigue by outdoor exercise ? Why is moderate 
exercise felt to be mentally refreshing and immoderate exercise men- 
tally exhausting? 

734. What differences are there between children and adults with 
regard to the reasons why exercise is needed, the amount and form needed, 
etc. ? 

735. Why is exercise in the classroom, e. g., calisthenics, generally 
conceded to be inferior to outdoor play or recreation ? In what respects 
may it be superior ? 

736. Does work in a gymnasium augment or lessen mental fatigue ? 

737. What merits has military drill as a form of physical training? 
Has it any disadvantages ? 

738. State the chief advantages and disadvantages of the various 
forms of outdoor sport, e. g., swimming, walking, running, base-ball, 
foot -ball, tennis, etc., as a means for physical training ? 

739. What games and sports afford the best all-around bodily devel- 
opment ? What tend to produce uneven or unsymmetrical development ? 

740. At what times ought physical exercise not to be taken ? 

741. "The diseases of sedentary life are the result of suboxidation." 
What are the diseases ? What is suboxidation ? 

742. What forms of physical exercise are best suited to the needs of 
high-school girls ? 



88 

{g) Diet aiid clothing 

743. What are the three chief food elements? How much of each 
is required for an adult ? For a child ? 

744. Give a general account of the diet best suited for growing school 
children ? What foods are most valuable ? What positively injurious ? 

745. Ought children to drink tea or coffee ? Is there any warrant 
for giving school children alcoholic beverages in any form or at any time ? 

746. What percentage of public-school children are underfed or 
undernourished ? Is inadequate nourishment commonly the result of 
poverty or ignorance ? Of insufficient or improper food ? 

747. Do teachers as a rule know whether their pupils are hungry or 
well-fed ? Is it the teacher's business to ascertain whether his pupils are 
properly fed and clothed ? What can, or should, the teacher do to re- 
lieve cases of distress ? 

748. Do brain-workers demand a diet different in quantity or quality 
from that of other workers ? 

749. What foods particularly demand thoro mastication to ensure 
salivary digestion? 

750. When should school children take their heaviest meal ? 

751. Ought any study to be undertaken before breakfast? 

752. What is the effect upon digestion of active mental work under- 
taken after eating ? 

753. "Nothing could be more injudicious than a program which allows 
only one hour for dinner, following a forenoon of study, and followed 
by an afternoon of study." Why? 

754. Ought those in charge of high schools to establish, maintain, or 
supervise a lunch counter for the pupils ? What foods do most school 
children eat for school lunches ? What are the best foods for such 
lunches ? 

755. Give a general account of the materials most suitable for chil- 
dren's clothing and of the more important principles that should govern 
its selection. 

756. What are the commonest faults in the selection and arrange- 
ment of the clothing of school children ? 



DEC 27 1909 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



JAN 12 1910 



